YouTube : du nouveau sur le thème « Beau livre Voitures anciennes »

Le thème « Beau livre Voitures anciennes » abordé sur youtube par L’Histoire nous le dira

Publiée par L’Histoire nous le dira (), une vidéo YouTube est une ressource intéressante traitant du thème « Beau livre Voitures anciennes ».

YouTube offre une plateforme dynamique où chacun peut découvrir et partager des contenus variés, allant des vidéos simples aux discussions approfondies.

Lors de notre récente consultation de cette vidéo (), elle totalisait des interactions. Le nombre de Likes indiquait: 5152.

L’Histoire nous le dira – Série #3), sont à prendre en compte de même que la description publiée par l’auteur :« La Seconde Guerre mondiale est un conflit à l’échelle planétaire qui dure officiellement de septembre 1939 à septembre 1945. La grande majorité des États du monde de l’époque y participent à l’intérieur de deux grandes alliances opposées : les forces de l’Axe contre celles des Alliés.

ERRATUM: Maréchal Paulus et non Von Paulus

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Avec: Laurent Turcot, professeur en histoire à l’Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada
Script: Carl Pépin https://carlpepin.com/about/

0:00 • Introduction
1:30 • 1939
50:16 • 1940
1:44:51 • 1941
2:43:02 • 1942
3:39:43 • 1943
4:39:22 • 1944
5:44:56 • 1945
6:56:20 • Conclusion

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Images provenant de https://www.storyblocks.com
Musique issue du site : epidemicsound.com
Les vidéos sont utilisées à des fins éducatives selon l’article 107 du Copyright Act de 1976 sur le Fair-Use.

Sources et pour aller plus loin:
John Keegan. La Deuxième Guerre mondiale, Paris, Perrin, 1990.
Basil Henry Liddell Hart. Histoire de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Fayard, 1973.
Henri Michel. La seconde Guerre mondiale, Paris, PUF, 1977.
Anthony Beevor. La Seconde guerre mondiale, Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 2012.
Jacques Sémelin. Sans armes face à Hitler : la résistance civile en Europe, 1939-1945, Paris, Payot, 1998.
Pierre Vallaud. La Seconde Guerre mondiale, Paris, Acropole, 2002.
Anne Frank. Le journal d’Anne Frank, Paris, Le livre de Poche, 1947.
Benoît Rondeau. Être soldat de Hitler, Paris, Perrin. 2019.
Jean Lopez et ai. Infographie de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Paris, Perrin, 2018.
Jean Lopez et al. Les grandes erreurs de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Paris, Perrin, 2020.
Eddy de Wind. Terminus Auschwitz, France, 2020.
Autres références disponibles sur demande.
Le texte et les sources ont été vérifiés de manière indépendante par un historien PhD.

Un fidèle abonné, Didier Mühlematter , nous a fait la remarque suivante que je retranscris ici, merci Didier.
C’est au sujet des avions, tu présentes les avions à réaction comme une avancée significative, mais pas utilisée car pas au point. L’histoire est différente. …….Le carburant était le même que pour les fusées V1 et V2. Et au final toutes les ressources encore disponibles ont été mises dans la fabrication des V2 sur un choix plus que discutable de Hitler, à la place de développer le concept des moteurs à réaction…… Le second avion que tu as montré n’était clairement pas au point.
#histoire #documentaire #ww2 #worldwar2 ».

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Combien dépenser pour un livre sur les voitures anciennes ?

Le tarif d’un ouvrage sur les voitures anciennes varie largement selon la qualité et le type d’édition :

• Livres Généralistes: Comptez environ 30 à 60 euros pour un livre d’introduction de bonne qualité.
• Ouvrages Spécialisés et Beaux Livres: Les prix des ouvrages illustrés peuvent varier de 80 à 200 €.
• Livres de Collection et Éditions Limitées: Ces ouvrages de valeur peuvent coûter plus de 200 euros, selon leur rareté.

Qu’est-ce qui justifie le prix élevé de certains livres ?

Pour faire des économies, optez pour des livres d’occasion. Des plateformes comme Rakuten, eBay ou les librairies de seconde main constituent d’excellentes options pour dénicher des livres en bon état à des prix avantageux. Les forums de passionnés et les groupes de collectionneurs représentent également de bonnes ressources.

Le Choix Optimal pour Chaque Amoureux des Voitures

Opter pour un livre sur les voitures anciennes est une belle façon d’enrichir votre collection ou de faire un cadeau mémorable. Que vous soyez attiré par une rétrospective ou un livre dédié à un modèle particulier, il est important de prendre le temps d’explorer les différents types de livres afin de trouver celui qui répondra le mieux à votre passion ou à celle de la personne à qui vous le destinez. Les ouvrages de qualité, chargés d’histoires et d’illustrations, sont des joyaux pour les passionnés d’automobiles anciennes et des souvenirs inoubliables à garder.

Une FAQ approfondie sur le choix d’un livre de voiture ancienne est désormais disponible(lien vers le site). N’hésitez pas à l’utiliser pour enrichir votre collection ou pour offrir un cadeau précieux.

Les voitures anciennes, considérées comme des trésors de l’histoire automobile, captivent par leur design, leur technologie, et leur impact culturel. Beaucoup de fans souhaitent approfondir leurs connaissances à travers des livres de collection, mais le choix est vaste et varié. Comment choisir le livre parfait, que ce soit pour soi ou pour un cadeau ? Ce guide vous accompagnera à travers les différents types de ouvrages, les points de vente et les gammes de prix.

Pourquoi certains livres sont-ils si chers à l’achat ?

Les coûts des ouvrages de collection voiture peuvent sembler élevés en raison de leur qualité d’édition et de leur valeur ajoutée. Les éditions limitées, ainsi que les livres anciens ou signés, sont très prisés pour leur rareté. De plus, les ouvrages de luxe intègrent souvent des images et des documents uniques, des reliures en cuir ou des étuis de protection, les rendant ainsi précieux aux yeux des collectionneurs.

Comment opter pour un livre de qualité supérieure ?

Lorsque l’on veut choisir un ouvrage de qualité sur les voitures anciennes, il est crucial de considérer certains critères fondamentaux :

1. L’Expertise des Auteurs: Assurez-vous de choisir des ouvrages écrits par des experts, tels que des historiens de l’automobile ou des journalistes spécialisés. Cela garantit des recherches approfondies et des informations fiables.
2. Les Illustrations et la Qualité d’Édition: Un ouvrage sur les voitures anciennes est rehaussé par de belles illustrations. Préférez les ouvrages bien illustrés, avec des photos capturant l’essence des véhicules et leur caractère. Une édition de qualité, avec une bonne reliure et du papier de haute qualité, assure un ouvrage agréable à consulter.
3. Les Avis et les Critiques: Avant d’acheter, il est souvent utile de lire les avis des lecteurs et les critiques. Les passionnés d’automobile partagent régulièrement leurs impressions en ligne, ce qui peut aider à évaluer si le livre répond à vos attentes.

Achat de livres spécialisés sur les voitures de collection

Trouver un ouvrage adéquat dépend aussi des lieux d’acquisition. Voici quelques options pour découvrir des ouvrages de qualité :

• Librairies Spécialisées et Salons de l’Automobile: Quelques librairies se concentrent sur les livres d’automobiles, offrant des éditions rares ou anciennes. Les salons d’automobiles et les événements pour collectionneurs présentent souvent des stands où des ouvrages spécifiques sont disponibles.
• Sites de Collection et Plateformes en Ligne: Des sites tels qu’AbeBooks, eBay, Amazon et Le Bon Coin offrent un large éventail de ouvrages, y compris des éditions d’occasion. Pour les livres rares, les sites spécialisés en livres d’occasion ou les catalogues de bibliophilie constituent de bonnes solutions.
• Bourses aux Livres et Bibliothèques: Certaines bibliothèques permettent d’emprunter des ouvrages rares, et les bourses aux livres peuvent offrir des articles intéressants à des prix attractifs.

Les atouts d’un ouvrage sur les voitures anciennes

Leslivres dédiés aux voitures anciennesne constituent pas seulement des sources d’information, mais aussi de véritablesobjets de collection. Certains livres incluent des photographies inédites, des dessins techniques, et des essais qui ne sont disponibles nulle part ailleurs. Posséder unouvrage sur son modèle préféréou sur une époque spécifique devient ainsi unplaisirqui transcende la simple lecture.

À l’ère du numérique, il peut sembler plus commode de rechercher des informations sur lesvoitures anciennessur Internet. Cependant, leslivresrestent une référence essentielle pour les vrais passionnés. Un livrebien élaboréet richement illustré permet d’approfondir l’histoire automobilede façon détaillée, avec une qualité d’édition et un savoir-faire qui procurent uneexpérience de lectureexceptionnelle. Contrairement aux ressources en ligne, qui peuvent êtreincomplètesoudispersées, les livres de collection offrent desanalyses minutieuses, souvent écrites par desexpertsou des journalistes dédiés.

Quels types de livres choisir : Rétrospectives ou spécialisés ?

Les livres thématiques sur une marque ou un modèle

Pour les fans de voitures anciennes qui ont une affection particulière pour une marque ou un modèle précis, un livre dédié peut constituer un choix idéal. Certains ouvrages se penchent en profondeur sur des marques emblématiques telles que Ferrari, Bugatti, Harley-Davidson ou encore la Citroën 2CV. Cependant, ces livres peuvent présenter un inconvénient si le destinataire est déjà un collectionneur chevronné : il est possible qu’il possède déjà ce livre, ou que celui-ci n’aborde pas les éléments qui l’intéressent vraiment. Si la personne en question a une préférence pour une époque ou un type de véhicule plus large, une rétrospective pourrait être une option plus judicieuse.

Les publications illustrées de qualité

Les livres d’art consacrés aux voitures anciennes se distinguent souvent par leur grand format et sont très appréciés pour leur qualité visuelle. Richement illustrés de photographies haute définition et d’images d’archives rares, ces ouvrages sont idéaux pour être exposés et parcourus. Ce type de livre est souvent recherché tant pour ses qualités esthétiques que pour son contenu informatif.

Les rétrospectives généralistes dans le monde de l’automobile

Ces publications englobent habituellement plusieurs décennies d’histoire automobile, mettant en avant des modèles variés issus de diverses marques, styles et époques. Elles sont pleines d’informations utiles et constituent un excellent point de départ pour les passionnés débutants ou pour ceux qui s’intéressent à l’histoire globale de l’automobile. Les rétrospectives soigneusement illustrées présentent un tableau captivant, soulignant l’évolution du design, des technologies et des tendances. Ce type de livre est une option parfaite pour uncadeau, car il s’adresse à un public diversifié sans être trop restrictif.

Avant de faire unachat, il est essentiel de saisir les multiples types d’ouvragesqui existent. En fonction de vos besoins ou des préférences du destinataire si vous recherchez uncadeau, certains types d’livres seront plus indiqués.

Pour consulter la vidéo directement sur YouTube, cliquez sur le lien suivant :
la source: Cliquer ici

#Seconde #guerre #mondiale #LHistoire #nous #dira #Série

Retranscription des paroles de la vidéo: Today I start the first episode of a new series dedicated to the history of World War II. As I did during the series dedicated to the Great War of 1914-1918, right here, I’ll explore the ins and outs of a conflict that’s, unfortunately, the dreadful logical continuation of a butchery which one can wonder if it really ended in 1918. Indeed, the question is legitimate, because the peace signed at Versailles in 1919 is only ephemeral, without ever really solving the political and economic problems and social welfare of European states, it’s even claimed that it contains the ingredients to fuel another war of unprecedented magnitude. And as many of you have followed and commented on my series on 1914-18, I this time invites you to explore the World War II on a similar model, that’s, year after year and in all theaters of operations. Whether on land, at sea, in the air, in the factories, in the streets cities, in the occupied territories and even in the death camps, nothing must elude us in order to better understand what really happened. Let’s go! Today on History will tell us, the World War II with, firstly, the year 1939. The World War II is a conflict on a planetary scale that officially lasts from September 1939 to September 1945. The vast majority of States in the world at the time participate in it within two large opposing alliances: the Axis forces against the Allies. But why did the world go up in flames again in 1939? Did they not retain the terrible lessons of the 1914-1918 war? The tens of millions of soldiers and civilians who died there, did they not convince humanity to stop these tragedies? Nope? To fully understand the events that interest us in 1939, it’s imperative to take a few steps back in time, i.e., to go back twenty years. Remember: the guns of the Great War ceasedto thunder on November 11, 1918. Central Powers, with Germany in the lead, evacuate the enemy territories they occupied since 1914. We then speak of an armistice which is then a ceasefire until a lasting peace is negotiated, but the future seems uncertain. As the Paris peace conference opened in January 1919, which was supposed to put an end to the conflict, the same month, Germany enters into full Spartacist revolution. Kaiser Wilhelm II is forced to abdicate his throne and the new Weimar Republic, whose representatives negotiate peace with the Allies, tries to establish his authority in the midst of the various factions that fuel the inferno of the revolution. Even worse! Beyond the revolutionary troubles in Germany, one can even say that the war in Europe continues. The sound of cannons is still heard. But where? And why? First, the beginning of 1919 saw a fully independent Poland attack by Russia in the midst of the Bolshevik revolution, which only ends in 1921 with the Polish victory. Also in 1919, in March, is founded in Moscow the Third Communist International, which seeks to rally to the new Soviet regime the various communist parties in Russia as elsewhere in the world. However, during the summer, after negotiating for months, they finally manage to sign a peace agreement with Germany by concluding the Treaty of Versailles, and despite that there are fighting elsewhere in Europe, let’s say that this treaty officially puts end to the Great War of 1914. I say « officially », the word matter. The Allied forces of the time therefore won a victory that radically changed the world map and the dynamics of international relations. But with the peace of Versailles, can we really say that Europe and the world can respite? One can reasonably doubt it, unfortunately. For example, there are many revolutions localized to certain countries or regions in the last weeks of the Great War and the early 1920s. These revolutions, politically more to the left, are taking place in Germany –as we come to see it– but also in Poland, Finland, Spain, Hungary and Austria, to name but a few examples. Most of these revolutionary movements fail, but the case of Russia in the 1920s is special, since communism manages to establish itself there. Note also that the end of the Great War consequently led to the creation of new States –especially in Eastern Europe– some of which were once provinces of fallen empires. So, conflicts are raging in Eastern Europe, but also in colonies of the British and French empires, where people yearn for more recognition from metropolises with regard to their participation in the Great War. The end of the hostilities also marks important changes at the social, economic and financial level, the war is literally weighing down the public finances of the former large powers. Great Britain, for example, can’t immediately reimburse the USA the war loans taken out, just as the coffers are empty in a Germany who must pay the reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Moreover, many Germans find the situation unacceptable, if although they flatly refuse to pay. What’s more -as if the situation weren’t serious enough- Germany experienced a period of hyperinflation in the early 1920s. Money loses its value so much that you almost have to be millionaire to buy even a coffee! But if some Germans opt for a path of passive resistance, others, more extremists, don’t hesitate to take up arms. The most notorious case remains the failed putsch orchestrated by members of Nazi party in November 1923 in Munich: the famous Beer All Putsch. On this occasion, influential members of the Nazi Party, including Adolf Hitler and General Erich Ludendorff, a former commander during World War I, provoked a coup to seize power in Munich, Bavaria. The clashes between the police and the Nazis ended in the death of a twenty of them, but the events give the Nazi Party and Hitler publicity unprecedented. Despite everything, the beginning of the 1920s marked relative economic prosperity in already industrialized countries, particularly in Western Europe and North America, middle class continues to rise and technologies known before the war ended up being more accessible, such as the telephone, cars and radio. It’s also to dwell on the clothing style of the people of the time, especially among the women who now dress in shorter and more casual clothes. In some countries, moreover, women obtain the right to vote in the context of the end of hostilities, which constitutes an important advance on the social level. However, in the popular imagination, these « crazy » and more or less glorious years, which are the 20s, ended abruptly in October 1929 when the Wall Street stock market in New York « crash » completely -you’ll see, we made a video on it- In fact, this break in the global economy is only the first step or phase of what’s becoming a long economic depression that characterizes essentially the 1930s. The crisis begins in the USA, but spreads just as quickly to reach a world summit around 1933. Almost no state in the world is spared. Trade international falls dramatically, suddenly leading some States to live in a quasi-economic autarky. So the end of the Great War brings its challenges and questions for the future. One can think of the growing influence of the USA in business international organizations, as well as to the legitimate hopes in the work of the new Society of Nations, the League of Nations. Precisely: will this famous League of Nations be able to bring the States to settle their disputes peacefully, if not to normalize their international relations, without systematically resorting to the force of arms? We can doubt it. Remember that this organization was born in 1920 and that it seeks to prevent future conflicts by emphasizing the principles of collective security, disarmament and above all negotiation. The League of Nations seeks as best they can to resolve certain conflicts and to bring back a semblance of peace, especially in what appears to be a necessary normalization of relations international after the Great War. However, the international organization fails to prevent the outbreak of some of the wars in the 1930s, nor to block the road to expansionist aims fascist regimes. But the SDN is involved in the conclusion of the Locarno agreements of 1925 which allow to regularize relations between the old enemies of the Great War who were France and Germany, in addition to stabilizing their borders. The SDN can also serve as a tool for promoting what can be called the « illegality of war”. Clearly, we must conceive of peace and war under other angles, certainly bolder and more innovative angles, and making war illegal may seem daring. Failing this, the future belligerents must at least be forced to prioritize the negotiation, then to no longer use certain prohibited weapons, such as poison gas that traumatized veterans of the Great War. The League of Nations is also part of an era where its wants to put an end to what we can now qualify as « secret diplomacy », i.e., this diplomacy that characterized international relations before 1914. From now on, its should bet on collective and public bargaining. Unfortunately for the League of Nations, its main handicap is that, unlike the United Nations, it doesn’t have a military tool enabling it to apply its resolutions in practice. Moreover, the League of Nations only partially succeeds in promoting the idea of ​​collective disarmament, this issue was particularly central during the interwar period. Above all, states with expansionist aims like Germany, Italy, Japan and the USSR don’t care to see potential conflicts appeased by diplomatic discussions, and even less to remain in a passive attitude concerning the question of disarmament and demilitarization. Moreover, it must be admitted, the international situation is quite anarchic to impose peace there, the case of Russia is particularly flagrant in this sense. Since 1917, the country has been in the midst of a civil war and the new Bolshevik power which finally imposed itself around 1922 aroused the highest suspicions among democratic countries. Russia then becomes the Soviet Union, the USSR, and the communist dictatorship, or rather stalinist, is now a reality. The new political regime stands out by its brutality and by a cult of the dictator’s personality, and you probably see me coming, who says “crisis” says “open doors” to totalitarian political ideologies, which undermine political stability of the faltering liberal democracies. Exactly: can the democracies of this world survive in the face of the rise and certain popularity of totalitarian ideologies such as communism and fascism? Can they survive the economic and financial crises, of which that of 1929 turns out to be by far the most terrible and which call into question the very foundations of capitalism? In the midst of an economic crisis, who is still confidence in legitimately elected democratic governments? Who? Shouldn’t we instead put in place iron-fisted governments, like is this the case in the USSR? Governments that will know, by more expeditious means and brutal, provide simple solutions to complex problems? Contrary to the communist path, some states provide political responses much more nationalist and ideologically conservative in substance, but just as authoritarian and brutal in form. Because if the world can believe that a totalitarian ideology like that of communism seems to be confined to Russia alone, that would be to ignore the rise of fascism, which too, as an ideology politician, seeks to solve problems in his own way. The first case that made an impression occurred in Italy in October 1922. Although the country fought alongside the Allies until 1918, Italy is literally dissatisfied fallout from the Treaty of Versailles. It was then that an army veteran named Benito Mussolini and his movement of « black shirts » march on Rome, the fascist leader is entrusted with power and doesn’t take long to establish a nationalist and authoritarian political regime. The other example of a “democratic” country that sinks into dictatorship is, of course, Germany. Adolf Hitler, also a veteran of the Great War, ended up by various political maneuvers, by obtaining from the German parliament the full powers in January 1933. The Nazi regime is set up. Hitler doesn’t hesitate to eliminate anyone who is likely to stand in his way, he gets rid of old allies like the S.A. during the infamous Night of the Long Knives in 1934. The next year, Hitler enacted the Nuremberg Laws which, broadly speaking, institutionalize discrimination against Jews and provide a legal framework for systematic persecution against them. Yes, you understood well, it’s now legal to attack Jews. Hitler goes even further with regard to the Jews, since they are victims, in 1938, pogroms during the terrible Kristallnacht in which synagogues and businesses are set on fire. Jewish victims number in the thousands in terms of dead, wounded and deported to concentration camps. The Night of Cristal of November 1938 seems to be the nightmarish prelude to what awaits the Jews at the time of the Holocaust during the war years. A bit like in the Soviet Union, the Nazi dictatorship ended up penetrating all spheres of German society at the time. In addition to advocating nationalist policies and expansionists, the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler was openly racist and anti-semitic. The rise of fascist regimes in Germany and Italy is extremely worrying, in particular because these regimes have clearly expansionist political aims. Moreover, the Nazi regime always seems to push the audacity a little further, for example, Hitler orders his troops, in what appears to be a clear violation of the clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, to militarily reoccupy the Rhineland in March 1936. This region rich in natural resources and highly industrialized located near borders with Belgium and France makes it a clearly strategic sector for the remilitarization of Germany. Also in 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, i.e., the anti-Communist pact officially directed against the Communist International, and in which the signatories swear to lend each other assistance in a eventual war against the USSR and its allies. A bit later, in March 1938, Hitler made to march his troops on Austria, in what’s called the Anschluss, i.e., the pure and simple annexation of the country by Germany. Nazi forces march on Vienna without a single shot. It now appears obvious that Hitler seeks to reunite under his regime all German-speaking populations. Moreover, still in 1938, in September, Germany is hosting a conference in Munich, this conference leads to an agreement important to Hitler. Western powers, especially Great Britain and France, agree that Germany should annex the Sudetenland, which is part of Czechoslovakia populated by many German speakers. All in exchange for peace. But for how much longer? Nothing seems to stop Hitler! Once again taking advantage of the desire of Western powers to safeguard peace at all price, he orders, in what is a clear violation of the Munich agreements, that be occupied and annexed Czech regions of Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia. As in Italy, Germany under Hitler doesn’t accept binding clauses and humiliating conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. The policy of relaxation desired by Great Britain and France is a failure, the new war seems working on. In fact, can we say that there is any kind of peace after 1918? It’s said that officially the World War II began in 1939, but the facts show that there were fighting in several regions of the world well before that date. For example, Mussolini’s Fascist Italy set out to conquer Ethiopia in 1935 and 1936, thereby provoking a scandal within the League of Nations and in most of international public opinion. The imposition of an embargo against the Mussolini regime, particularly on oil, didn’t little effect and doesn’t slow down the march of the fascists against this Ethiopia, which is then one of the few independent African countries. In addition, from 1936 to 1939, Spain was confronted with a terrible civil war in a coup orchestrated by soldiers under the leadership of General Franco. Victorious, Franco set up an equally nationalist, conservative dictatorship and tinged with a strong Catholicism. In the Far East, Japan benefits from chronic political instability in China to pursue an expansionist policy during the 1930s. Japan notably conquered Manchuria there in 1931, following the so-called the Mukden incident, which is actually an railway facilities self-sabotage deliberately orchestrated by Japan to force war with China. Subsequently, the belligerents clash along the Chinese coastal provinces at the end of the decade, just as the Japanese armies fight the Soviet forces for territories located in the Mongolia region of present-day. This Sino-Japanese war which began in 1931 ended up calming down somewhat in over the years, but it picked up again in the summer of 1937. The fighting is particularly fierce in Shanghai, as well as in Nanjing, where the Japanese massacre tens of thousands of Chinese among military and civilians. Moreover, with the scale of the conquests and massacres carried out by the Japanese army in Chinese territory, some historians come to believe that the World War II could have started as soon as the beginning of the 1930s, instead of the date of 1939 traditionally used. And just like Hitler did in Germany, the Japanese leaders ended up by establishing in their country and in conquered territories a regime of military dictatorship openly expansionist, nationalist and racist. Consequently, we retain that the world at the end of the 1930s is far from aspiring to collective peace as envisaged by the League of Nations, which is literally powerless to establish any comprehensive peace in the world. In this context, can we think that the rise of fascism and communism could mark a decisive step towards another all-out war? As we see in Italy and Germany, fascism doesn’t hesitate to mobilize its profit the anger of certain individuals or classes of society left behind by economic and financial misery. Fascism is a movement that take away from liberal democracy, not hesitating to ridicule its failures to solve societal problems, while attacking religious minorities and ethnic groups, which most of the time serve as scapegoats. In short, it’s certain that the world is once again heading towards a generalized catastrophe. Returned in 1939, doubt is no longer possible. Imagine the situation then. We’re at the beginning of 1939. We can now say that Germany is reunited and expanding, as Italy and Japan. The alliance between fascist regimes is becoming more and more precise. Italy ends up joining the anti-comintern pact and signs with Germany, in May, the Pact of Steel, which is downright a political and military alliance. But the height of the height lies in the conclusion of a secret agreement between Germany of Hitler and Stalin’s Soviet Union on August. Imagine! You have two totalitarian regimes with completely opposite political ideas who secretly sign a non-aggression pact just days before the officially start of World War II! This pact called the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, named after the foreign ministers German and Soviet, concerns the division and then the occupation of territories in Europe East once hostilities begin. Clearly, the pact provides for the division and then the joint occupation of Poland by German and Soviet troops, and the Soviet occupation of the Baltic countries. What’s more -and this is fundamental for the Germans- the agreement removes the threat of a Soviet attack on Germany at the time of the invasion of Poland. Thereby, Germany can have a free hand on the western front in the event of a declaration of war coming from France and Great Britain. Now that the threat of war with the USSR has passed, Hitler has his hands free to decide where and when he’ll strike but it’s an open secret, in insofar as it seems obvious that his next target is Poland. All excuses are good to invade it, for example, Hitler demands that be attached to Germany the famous corridor that divides the two states: the corridor of Danzig. The municipality which itself is supposed to have free city status, is one of the claimed objectives. To this end, and within the framework of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, Hitler sent an ultimatum on August 30 to Poland claiming the territories of the Polish corridor and the city of Danzig. The ultimatum remained unanswered and the German armies mobilized on the Polish border. The next day, the 31st, border incidents fabricated from scratch by the Nazis take place along the border with the aim of making it appear that the Poles attacked the Germans. The reality is quite different, but Hitler’s response turns out to be brutal. Admittedly, war seems coming, but international public opinion remains shocked. War is now a reality, the world is preparing for the worst. Therefore, on September 1, 1939, German soldiers stormed into Poland. The World War II Begins! I’ll therefore analyze the main phases of operations in 1939 according to the different theaters. Let’s see what’s happening first in Poland, during of a military campaign that officially takes place from September 1 to October 6, 1939. The Germans have considerable numbers. In fact, they bring together the vast majority of their military resources available on that date. We’re talking about about 2 million soldiers supported by nearly 10,000 guns, 2,800 tanks and nearly 2,500 aircraft. Opposite, the Polish army manages to mobilize 1 million men supported by just over 4,000 guns, 200 tanks, and 800 aircraft. As you can see, the Germans seem at first glance to have a numerical advantage, but the Poles’ morale is very good despite the circumstances, since they defend the national territory, the motherland. And I’d like to tell you how the German army performs in an extraordinary way by resorting to the Blitzkrieg tactic, i.e., this form of lightning war where wonderfully the use of mechanized infantry, state-of-the-art assault tanks and an air force capable of supporting land forces in all circumstances. But the reality of the 1939 Polish campaign for the Germans is quite different. Admittedly, they have considerable numbers and are still well trained and equipped, but some caveats can be raised. Obviously, the German economy produced more and more military equipment during the 1930s and these are relatively good quality. Moreover, it’s true that the Blitzkrieg, even if not perfectly executed, could drill major breaches in the Polish defenses, to the point of dislocating the front enemy in different places and even at critical moments. Let’s remember, however, that the economy of the Third Reich in 1939 wasn’t perfectly prepared to what can be called “total war”. At the time of invasion, for example, ground units do not necessarily have of all the vehicles they need and it is reported that the ammunition reserves are quite low at times. The fact remains that the German economy still manages to ensure relatively good preparation of the invading army, but the economy isn’t immediately capable of fueling a long-lasting war. So, Poland must be conquered quickly in order that the economy blows a little. Besides, Hitler didn’t want to totally mobilize the economy for the purposes of the war. He does not want to do this despite the fact that a war with England and France is inevitable and that specialized resources must be provided for the sole purpose of production military. The leader of the Reich and many of his generals seem a little too proud, it’s true, on the excellent hierarchical and tactical organization of the infantry divisions in charge to lead the assault on Poland. In addition to having numerical superiority, the German divisions have a structure more modern and efficient than their Polish counterparts, they have also better tanks, such as the Panzer I, II, III and IV. In accordance with the ideas of General Heinz Guderian, thinker and developer of the concept of Blitzkrieg, tanks and units mechanized must be the spearhead to break through the enemy front, then isolate possible pockets of resistance. The goal is always to confuse the opponent, by ensuring that can’t reconstitute a solid and continuous front line. The bulk of the army essentially made up of foot units, must follow the advance of mobile units and finish off those famous pockets of enemy resistance. Whether on foot or mobile, German units can also count on the air force support, the Luftwaffe under orders of Hermann Goering, plus to clearing the sky of the enemy aircraft presence with fighters such the Messerschmitt BF-109, the Luftwaffe’s role was to break up and pulverize the enemy supply convoys and lines of communication. The dive bombers Stuka play an important role in this regard, like armored units, the role of aviation is also to sow the seeds of confusion and panic in the enemy ranks, crippling his defensive capabilities. The key to success is therefore simple: speed and mobility! Never mind, the first shots of World War II in Europe seem to have been fired by the German navy, the Kriegsmarine. Shells propelled by a ship along the Polish coast near from Danzig fall. more precisely against the locality of Westerplatte, a little before 5 am, September 1, 1939. Trapped, the Poles fought valiantly, their army tries some counter-attacks, but it’s quickly overwhelmed on all parts of the front going from the north to south of the border with Germany. German troops also leave of East Prussia. The goal is simple: get to Warsaw as quickly as possible. For their part, the Luftwaffe’s fighters endeavor to eliminate their opponents, while dive bombers attack enemy columns or any another objective designated by the high command. The fall of Danzig from September 1 marks a general withdrawal of the Polish army, a withdrawal planned, because the Poles retreat to much stronger defensive lines around Warsaw, in the center of the country. However, this retreat by the Poles quickly turned into a generalized retreat with the fall of another important city, further south, Krakow, which falls on September 6. The lightning advance of the Germans provides another advantage, namely that it’s now possible to establish air bases on Polish soil, exposing the capital of Warsaw more easily to bombardments of the Luftwaffe from 10 September. Two weeks after the start of the invasion, the situation worsened for the Poles. It’s even very worrying. The army then begins a retreat not only towards Warsaw to defend the capital at all costs, but elements are also falling back towards the border with Romania to ward off the worst. And the worst is gradually taking shape. The Polish capital is completely surrounded from September 16, plus in accordance with the terms of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, the Soviet army in turn invades Poland the next day! How, in these circumstances, can Poland still get away with it? Reality is that victory is impossible, nor even resistance in the short term, because the Soviets manage to make the junction with the Germans near Brest-Litovsk as soon as September 19. The Germans therefore have a free hand to rush towards the Polish capital and the battle of Warsaw which begins on September 26 is very tough. Polish resistance is fierce, but the city finally fell two days later, on the 28th. It’s now over for Poland and its army, the majority of soldiers capitulated in the first two weeks of October 1939. However, we can speak of a “surface” capitulation, since several Polish units manage to take refuge in neutral Romania to eventually join the Allies, just as a government in exile and an underground state are formed in the coming months. Despite all, Germany annexes part of Poland and the USSR the eastern part. The Polish resistance is officially over, but there are lessons to be learned of this campaign, just as lingering myths were born after these battles. For example, the most tenacious of them is probably which said that the cavalry Polonaise charged heads first, or rather « spears first », towards the enemy armored units. It’s not so. Another myth is that the Polish air force was destroyed on the ground without having delivered battle. Again, everything is wrong. Although it’s outnumbered and that it has lower quality aircraft, the Polish Air Force has offered serious resistance to the Luftwaffe for at least the first two weeks of campaign. The same is true for the quality of the resistance of the Polish land army, once again, the Polish soldiers inflicted on the Germans significant losses and the duration of the campaign, five weeks, is surprising for a country that isn’t officially a military power in the classic sense of the term. This first campaign of the World War II in Europe was therefore heavy in human and material losses. The Germans mourn the loss of about 60,000 soldiers killed, wounded and missing, as well as about 240 tanks, 800 vehicles and 250 planes out of order. For their part, the Soviets reported the loss of about 5,500 soldiers in a campaign where the Polish resistance was much less strong. As for the Poles, the results are of course catastrophic. We’re talking about losses close to 875,000 soldiers, almost the entire army, of which three quarters were taken prisoner, in addition to losing almost the entire arsenal of tanks, guns and planes. The end of the Polish campaign doesn’t see the end of hostilities in 1939. They’re fighting elsewhere, especially in Eastern Europe, once again. The USSR forces the Baltic States to sign a pseudo pact of “mutual assistance” in case of conflict, and so be able to station troops there. It smacks of annexation! Moreover, the Soviets wanted to force the Finns to sign such a agreement, but the latter refuse, because an approval on their part would mean sacrificing part of the national territory between the capital Helsinki and the Soviet city of Leningrad, plus to seeing Soviet forces staying there. Faced with Finland’s refusal, the USSR invaded on November 30, 1939, causing its expulsion from the League of Nations and the start of the so-called Winter War, or Finno-Soviet War, which only ended in March 1940 with some Finnish territories concessions. The first objective of the Soviets consists in opening a breach in the isthmus of Karelia, a relatively thin strip of land that separates Lake Ladoga from the Gulf of Finland, to facilitate the invasion of Finnish territory from the south. The capital Helsinki was bombed on December 1, and Finnish troops, facing weight of numbers, fall back in good order behind a defensive line of relatively good quality named the « Mannerheim line ». Despite their overwhelming numerical superiority, the Soviet forces became literally massacred by the Finns in battles like those of Kolla, Taipale or Suomussalmi at the turn of 1939-1940. Generally, Finns record between 4 and 5 times less combat losses than their Soviet adversaries. The very low temperatures in winter, the very bad tactics of the Russians, the lack of training and equipment of their troops, all these factors contribute to their terrible defeats. Despite all, the Moscow Treaty signed in March 1940 forced the Finns to give in important territories to the Soviets, in particular the border region of Karelia. However, international public opinion retains the image of the poor performance of the Soviet army. Hitler also notices this and draws certain lessons from it for the future, in the event of a possible invasion by the USSR. On the Western front, that is to say in the theaters of operations which are opening up with England and France declaring war on Germany on September 3, 1939, the beginning of the World War II seems surprisingly calm. This is in fact the beginning of the so-called Phoney War, the war period before the start of German invasion in the west in the spring of 1940. Shortly after the start of the general mobilization of the army, the French began an offensive with limited means in the German border region of the Saar, September 7-12. They capture some Germans villages, but don’t push further, despite the fact that the majority of resources soldiers of the Third Reich are assigned to the campaign in Poland. For their part, the start of the war in the West saw the British begin a naval blockade of Germany as they had done in 1914. In return, the Germans respond with submarine warfare, but a war that remains limited for now. Like France, Great Britain wasted no time in mobilizing its military resources. The first elements of the British expeditionary force landed on the continent as soon as September 4. One would swear to see repeating the scenario of the World War I! This « phony war » saw some clashes and exchanges of gunfire between the belligerents. For example, German cannons fire on French villages located near from the Maginot Line, this powerful series of fortifications erected from the Swiss border to the Ardennes forest in the interwar period. In response, the French quickly abandoned their offensive in the Saar to retreat behind the Maginot Line in October, despite reports that indicate a weak German military presence on the western border. We can say that the Allies miss a good opportunity to come to the aid of Poland left alone. However, these timid military maneuvers by the Allies are sufficient to alerting the German high command of the real danger of an invasion by the west of the Third Reich. Consequently, Hitler ordered preparations for an invasion by the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. This is called the Fall Gelb or Yellow Plan, which delayed its application by bad weather conditions at the end of 1939. The problem for the Germans on the western front is that the weather seems favorable to the Allies. In fact, the more time goes by, more time the Allies had to consolidate their forces and strengthen their front. The effect of surprise seems destroyed and the French have an unshakable confidence in their powerful Maginot line. However, some German generals, including Erich von Manstein, boldly proposed not to attack the Maginot Line directly, but to circumvent it from the north across the thick Ardennes forest deemed impenetrable. Not only is bypassing the Maginot Line important, but Manstein seeks to believe in the Allies that the Germans will not attack through Belgium either to maintain a relative surprise effect and above all so as not to repeat the 1914 scenario. Ironically, the Allied generals approved, in November 1939, the Dyle Plan submitted by the French Chief of Staff, Maurice Gamelin. This plan consists in dispatching the best units directly to Belgium, then to Netherlands to block the road to the Germans. Clearly, the Allied high command seems to believe that the enemy will borrow the traditional route of invasion by Belgium, instead of considering other bolder scenarios, like an attack against the Maginot line or even through the Ardennes. However, advocates of the Dyle Plan argue that it’s, in a way, to close three breaches in the front line. A first breach has already been closed and this is the portion of the front covered by the Maginot line; a second breach is made up of the Ardennes forest deemed impenetrable! The third, finally, is the one starting from the Ardennes towards the Netherlands. It’s this breach which is considered the most vulnerable, hence the idea of ​​deploying the best mobile and armored units, because it isn’t desired that the enemy penetrate deeply in France and to the Channel ports as in 1914-18. In short, the idea can be defended. It can be justified, especially since the « phoney war » allows time and relative tranquility to implement this Dyle Plan deemed infallible. All that remains is to wait for the German offensive. In the Far East theater of operations, note that the Sino-Japanese war continues, with an unparalleled outbreak of violence. We fight in the Chinese province of Hunan, in the south of the country, during the Battle of Changsha in September and October, 1939. The Chinese nationalists won a victory there by preventing the Japanese from consolidating their hold in southern China. Still further south, in the province of Guangxi, Chinese and Japanese fight a long battle between November 1939 and November 1940 for the control of this highly strategic region, because it’s the link between southern China and all that’s considered Vietnam, the Gulf of Tonkin and the Pacific Ocean. By seizing the territory, the Japanese gradually managed to cut off supplies of China by the south of the country, which has consequence on the Chinese war effort. These last series of Chinese army’s defeats leave the world perplexed as to the capacities of this one to carry out a fight in longer term against Japan. Although China has been wrestling against Japan since 1931, it hasn’t recovered from defeats suffered in Shanghai and Nanjing at the end of the 1930s. China doesn’t have an army capable of more victories in the long term because of its weak industrial resources, the limited experience of its army for modern warfare, lacking of training and equipment and, even worse, problems in the high command structure and a disunited political leadership. On the air front, 1939 saw some major battles. There are fights in the skies of Poland, where the Luftwaffe won the decision against an Polish air force outnumbered and with lower quality devices. The world remembers that plus to the bombardment of military objectives, the planes of the Luftwaffe drop their bombs on civilian targets, especially cities, which causes general disapproval. However, German cities suffer the same fate. From September, aircraft of the Royal Air Force, the RAF, attack military objectives and civilians in Helgoland Bay, where Kriegsmarine units are located. A little further north, towards Scandinavia in the Strait of Skaggerak, planes from the RAF and Luftwaffe clash, as the Germans attempt a few missions of bombardments against Royal Navy units off the English and Scottish coasts in September and October. The year 1939 in the West seems characterized by fighting between the British and German aviation, essentially with the aim of damaging as much as possible the adversary’s naval forces. And speaking of naval forces, they’re also fighting in the waters of the world in 1939. The very long Atlantic battle or campaign began in September 1939 when a first ship, the liner Athenia, is torpedoed by a German submarine. As we said, the British immediately imposed a naval block of the German coasts and, contrary to what we saw during the Great War, quickly adopted the system relatively effective convoys during the dangerous crossings of the Atlantic. The Battle of the Atlantic in 1939 saw the audacious sinking or torpedoing of some units that are the pride of the belligerents. This is particularly the case for the sinking of the aircraft carrier HMS Courageous, sunk on September 17 by a U-boat, just like HMS Royal Oak which was sunk by a German submarine on October 13. The Allies decided at the start of hostilities to create specialized combat groups responsible for patrolling specific sectors of the Atlantic Ocean, especially in the purpose of fighting enemy surface units. In particular, they’re trying to put an end to the activities of two large German ships: Deutschland and Graf Spee. Moreover, in November 1939, the German fleet received the order to sink all Allied merchant ship it crosses, which immediately sets the tone, because the maritime civilians units are bearing the brunt of a war of which its unknow in advance the duration. Finally, the year 1939 in the Atlantic experienced a last major episode, namely the battle of the Rio de la Plata, an estuary located between Argentina and Uruguay, on December 13. Then clash the German heavy cruiser Graf Spee and units of the Royal Navy. Severely damaged after epic struggle witnessed by the Uruguayan population along the coast, the Graf Spee makes its way to Montevideo, a neutral seaport. Its commander, Captain Hans Langsdorff, makes the decision to scuttle his ship rather than see it fall into British hands, a few days later he commit suicide, given the dishonor he considers having to give up his ship in the presence of the enemy. So much for the main clashes on all fronts for the year 1939. We understand so that the beginning war is already global and it’ll not end soon. From the beginning, the main belligerents voted emergency budgets for their armies, in addition to issuing general mobilization orders, this is the case among others for Great Britain and France. As during the World War I, it wasn’t long in setting up specialized ministries, e.g., departments for ammunition, supply, weaponry and so on. Without surprise, conscription quickly becomes a reality, for example in France and in England where the need for soldiers is expected to be great. Rationing is also a drastic measure, but necessary in the event where any break in supply lines should be considered. More dramatic, however, are the measures taken against the Jews. In Germany as in the occupied territories, the Jews are the subject of deportations. Jews from Austria and Czechoslovakia left for concentration camps as early as October 1939. A first Jewish ghetto was created in the Polish city of Lublin the same month, which seems to be only the beginning of the Holocaust -I’ll come back to this throughout the next episodes- Diplomacy is another front not to be neglected. Two days after the start of the war in Poland, England and France declare war on Germany after sending ultimatums to withdraw its troops there. Once the Polish campaign is over, in October, Hitler sends a kind of offer of peace to France and Great Britain, an offer immediately rejected for so long that the Germans will not leave the occupied territories. There is even the pope who adds his grain of salt. On October 20, Pius XII publishes a encyclical entitled Summi Pontificatus in which he criticizes racism and totalitarianism, the sovereign pontiff also denounces the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, just as he calls for the restoration of the independence of the Polish state. However, some states opt for neutrality, this is particularly the case in Italy, which -of course- displays sympathy for Nazi Germany, as well as for Spain fascist just emerging from a long civil war. Scandinavian and Baltic countries also adopt neutrality. To the west, countries potentially susceptible to be on the way of invasion of the German forces also proclaim their neutrality, this is the case of Belgium and Netherlands. In North America, the USA in turn proclaimed their neutrality. However, President Franklin Roosevelt signs in November an update of the Neutrality Act, which advocates a Cash & Carry policy, i.e., the USA can sell weapons and war material to the belligerents, provided that the buyers pay cash and completely take care of the transport. For its part, Canada declares war to Germany on September 10 and, unlike the situation in 1914, it did so in his proper noun. The majority of the British dominions follow are in turn in a state of war. Let’s go! This concludes our episode. of the year 1939. The war has just begun. See you in the next episode dedicated to the events of 1940! So, here we’re in 1940. The year begins. Europe and the world are once again in a war of planetary dimensions. The theaters of operations are already numerous and the number of victims skyrockets! As in 1914, the belligerents once again mobilized their armies, their finances and their savings. They know very well that the war will not end Christmas, on the contrary, the recent German victories in Poland, combined with Adolf Hitler’s outrageous ambitions seem to indicate that the struggle will not end anytime soon. As the new year begins, things are indeed going relatively well for the Germans, they occupy the entire western part of Poland as well as the capital, Warsaw. Naturally, Hitler is satisfied, but he knows that his armies will sooner or later have to confront those of the great powers of England and France. As in 1914-1918, Franco-British soldiers bury themselves on a front line that makes facing the western border of Germany, and waiting! The belligerents on the front West observe each other, a few shots are exchanged. That’s what we call Phoney War: they’re at war, but without really confronting each other. But elsewhere the war really continues, notably between the Soviet Union and Finland. The front stabilized in the isthmus of Karelia. Finns lost quite a lot of territory, but they still suffered terrible casualties to ill-prepared Soviet forces. In Asia, the Chinese and the Japanese never stop fighting each other, they’re fighting everywhere along the Chinese coast and the year 1940 which begins doesn’t seem very promising for an eventual peace. Finally, new fronts seem to be developing on the seas and in the air. Clashes between British and German Air Force in 1939 were somewhat sporadic and limited to areas in the North Sea and near the Baltic Sea. On the seas, the British and German navies somewhat rivaled each other, without achieve a convincing victory, whether in the North Sea or in the Atlantic. So this is the situation as a new year, a new decade begins. Let’s go! Today on History will tell us, the World War II with the year 1940. What happens when the year 1940 begins? What first grabs the attention is the ongoing conflict between the USSR and Finland. This war, called the Winter War, doesn’t really know any respite. Stalin’s soldiers take a break at the start of the year, if only to recover from their bitter defeats of the previous fall, although the top Soviet command orders a resumption f offensives as soon as possible, and the troops undoubtedly need rest. They try to forget the terrible defeat suffered during the battle of Suomussalmi, in northern Finland. This battle lasts about a month to officially conclude on January 8. And hold on good. The Soviets, who have troops about five times greater in number, suffer losses of 25,000 soldiers against barely 2,000 for their Finnish enemies. It’s ten to one! The battle of Suomussalmi constitutes a significant episode of the Winter War and a division entire Soviet army is wiped out and an incredible amount of material is destroyed or captured. The Soviets begin a withdrawal of their troops across the entire front, but they respond by intensifying their aerial bombardments, in particular against the Finnish capital, Helsinki. Stalin and the Soviet high command tried by all means to repair the many humiliations suffered. The reputation of the Soviet army takes a hit, especially since many of his soldiers died due to the cold and training of questionable quality. But it’s with wear and tear that the Soviets manage to defeat the Finns, if one can say. Their assaults on the main Finnish defense line, the Mannerheim Line near Helsinki end up with some local successes. In February 1940, under the weight of the number, the Finnish troops fell back in good order and gradually abandon their line of defence. Despite their dazzling victories, the Finns realize that they don’t have the necessary resources to last a long time. Finland is notably forced to cede Karelia and other territories further north of the country. The end of the Winter War with Finland doesn’t mark the end of Soviet ambitions in Eastern Europe, Stalin has been eyeing the Baltic States for a long time and counts seize it well by orchestrating a series of incidents to force the intervention of his troops. The months of May and June 1940 saw Soviet soldiers being involved in border incidents which are in fact staged attempts to put involved the Baltic States, for example, an incident may take the form of alleged persecutions of communist groups by the governments of the Baltic States. The USSR must therefore come to their rescue! Without fanfare, Stalin sends an ultimatum to Lithuania, as he does with Latvia and Estonia. Faced with the refusal of the Baltic States to comply with Soviet demands, they were immediately invaded and occupied. Unsurprisingly, Stalin quickly announced the annexation outright from the Baltic States to the Soviet Union. In short, the year 1940 in Eastern Europe wasn’t particularly marked by great offensives, but the annexation of the Baltic countries is certainly the blow of brilliance which holds international attention, plus to the war with Finland which just ended. On their side, the Germans let it happen, and that’s okay. Let’s remember that the annexation of the Baltic States by the USSR constitutes a important clause of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact signed in the summer of 1939. So, the Germans take note of the situation, but this doesn’t prevent Hitler to be wary of this unusual ally, Stalin. Besides, at the end of 1940, Hitler will order the beginning of preparations for a possible invasion of the Soviet Union. I’ll come back! So that’s it for the front from the east. In the West, the year 1940 begins with a strange incident, whose consequences are subject to debate but which goes almost unnoticed. Let’s remember that the situation on the front is relatively, or abnormally, calm, in what is called the Phoney War. However, on January 10, 1940, a German plane, whose pilot was visibly lost, crashed in Belgium, which is then neutral. The plane crashes near the town of Mechelen and it carries on board the details of Operation Fall Gelb, the Yellow Plan. The Mechelen incident first teaches us that the Germans decided to postpone the invasion to the West, i.e., towards France due to bad weather conditions. Ok, we’re in January, I grant you! But more importantly, we learn from these documents –given to the Allies by the Belgian authorities– that the Germans did indeed intend to invade the Scandinavian countries. Clearly, they understand from the Mechelen incident that a war against the West is now inevitable. But one question remains: when will the Germans strike? This question is central, especially since the Germans are bringing the final touches to the plan of invasion of the Scandinavian countries. More specifically, its understands that their operations will be carried out against Denmark, neighboring country which is immediately on the northern border, then against Norway, renowned for its natural resources, including iron. For their part, the Franco-British allies decide that they’ll also intervene on the Scandinavian front, in particular to help Norway. Not only do they intend to prevent the Germans from getting their hands on the iron mines, but a military intervention in Norway could eventually allow them to offer assistance more direct to Finland which is struggling to stop the Soviet assaults in February, 1940. The first months of 1940 in the West were essentially marked by a reflection on the strategies to be adopted for the next campaigns. The Allies are thinking on the most effective way to block the road to the Germans who, for their part, reflect on the best means to employ so that the next campaigns remain fast and victorious. Moreover, one of the thinking heads of the German high command, General Erich von Manstein proposes a bold, perhaps too bold plan in February. He presents Hitler with an invasion plan whose main effort in the West should concentrate in the thick forest of the Ardennes with the aim of separating the French and British armies, then rush quickly over open ground towards the ports of the Sleeve. However, « logic » would have liked, as we saw in 1914, that the main effort was brought more directly to Belgium, where the terrain is much flatter and dotted with fewer natural obstacles. But the idea doesn’t pass. Manstein’s daring plan even earned him a momentary loss his position as a battle planner at the general staff, but that’s only momentary, Let’s remember immediately that the idea to attack in difficult terrain to surprise the enemy making his merry way. I’ll come back! Weeks pass and spring arrives. It’s precisely April 9, 1940. Hitler carries out his plan to invade the Scandinavian countries! German forces rush into Denmark, whose valiant army fails to halt or delay the enemy advance. The Denmark campaign is probably the shortest of World War II, in just a few hours the entire country is occupied. The same day, Norway also bears the brunt of the German invasion. The soldiers of the Third Reich are bold, they attack with all available means. The Luftwaffe quickly liquidates the Norwegian air force and delivers a fairly tough fight against the British Royal Air Force. On the sea, the German navy forces the passage of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea in order to land troops there. What’s more, the Luftwaffe also deploys thousands of paratroopers, something almost never seen before. The next day, April 10, while the Norway still resists, the Germans install a government of collaboration there. The capital Oslo falls quickly, but the resistance continues much further north, where the last elements of the Norwegian army, assisted by Franco-British reinforcements, intend to hold on well. They fight in the city of Trondheim, one of the main landing places of the British and French soldiers. The British also landed at Narvik in mid-April, so that Narvik and Trondheim became the main strongholds of resistance once Oslo fell. They fight on the Trondheim-Narvik front for at least two weeks, until the moment where the British decide to abandon Trondheim, then withdraw with the forces French of all the last Norwegian ports they hold. The Norwegian campaign lasts about two months, from the starting of the invasion in April until final withdrawal of allied troops during May. So, in mid-May 1940, we can say that the Germans occupied a significant part of Europe: Poland, Denmark, but also Norway, are under their control. But could Hitler decide to stop there? Do you doubt it? The answer is no. The resounding victory of German troops in Norway worries the Allies at the highest point, so that Hitler intends to take advantage of their vulnerability. In fact, can we really say that the Allies are vulnerable? Certainly, the Scandinavian campaign is a failure, but the main front in the West, i.e., the French front still holding. In fact, it wasn’t even tested! The Allies therefore have reasonable grounds to believe, as was the case during the World War I, that they could bar the road to the Germans when they put their invasion plan into action. In this context, remember that the Phoney War has been going on since September 1939. We’re now at early May 1940, they’ve been observing each other for months along a front line that roughly starts from the Swiss border to Luxembourg. Belgium and the Netherlands, which are inevitably on the Germans invasion route, are still neutral and the Allies believe that Belgians and Dutch will not give carte blanche to the Germans. What’s more, France has its formidable Maginot Line, a powerful series of fortifications defenses dating back to the 1930s, and comprising thousands encased soldiers with formidable armament. So, it’s obvious that the Maginot Line is impenetrable! Further north, the thick Ardennes forest could, at the limit, see the German infantry passing through it, but probably not heavy equipment such as tanks, or even the artillery. In short, there’s still a part of the front to be defended a little more tenaciously, and it’s the front between France and Belgium, because the Maginot Line it’s impenetrable. So, why stress? The Germans will never pass! Much has been learned from the lessons of 1914. Paris and the French can sleep peacefully. The world can rest easy, they think. The French army is reputed to be the best in the world in 1940. In addition, it’s supported by a strong contingent of British soldiers and can also count on the possible collaboration of Belgian and Dutch troops. So, why get angry? Unfortunately for the Allies, the phoney war which began on September 3, 1939, came to an abrupt end on May 10, 1940. Hitler gave the green light to the invasion of the West front and it’s tough. Simultaneously, the German armies rush into the Netherlands, in Belgium, Luxembourg and, of course, in France. The Germans are going all out! They have about 140 infantry divisions, which represents about 3 million infantry, supported by more than 7,000 guns, nearly 2,500 tanks, the famous Panzers, and an air force that brings together nearly 6,000 aircraft of all types. To this impressive contingent, it’s necessary to underline the presence of a twenty Italian infantry divisions massed opposite the southern border of the France, but these don’t move, because Mussolini’s Italy remains for the moment away from the war in the West. Opposite, among the Allies, their numbers are also impressive. On the other hand, there’s a problem of unity of command as different nations try to coordinate the defense of the front. Still, the Allies manage to muster comparable numbers in infantry, about 135 infantry divisions, supported by about 14,000 guns and at least 3,500 tanks, many of which rival the best German Panzers, and 3,000 aircraft of all kinds. From the outset, the state of emergency is declared in all the countries located in the axis of Germans invasion, they come from everywhere, from the Swiss border to the Netherlands, they even arrive via the sky route, where thousands of paratroopers are dropped in Holland and Belgium. German paratroopers stand out quickly in Belgium by the capture of the powerful fortress of Eben-Emael on May 10, but they experience difficulties during the Battle of The Hague in the Netherlands the same day. The next day, and without too much surprise, Luxembourg was quickly invaded and conquered, suddenly opening a passage to France. Despite their numerical and technological inferiority, the Belgian and Dutch armies offer sometimes strong resistance which manages in some places to break the pace of German advance. For example, the Belgian army destroys all it can to slow down the enemy. Roads, bridges, viaducts, railways… nothing should be left behind that could facilitate the German advance. The Belgian army, which had the experience of 1914, resisted as best it can and is trying to retreat to the west, in the hope that sooner or later they can establish a front line in northern France. For its part, the Dutch army resists with the energy of despair, even if the situation is quickly deteriorating. The resistance is particularly strong at Rotterdam, a city that the Luftwaffe bombarded relentlessly, not hesitating to pound civilians. We can even say that the bombardment of Rotterdam, with that of Warsaw in the fall previous, constitutes one of the first real strategic bombardments of the war. It creates a shock wave in the international public opinion being given that civilians are clearly being targeted. However, Dutch resistance weakened. After 5 days of fighting, on May 15, most of the country capitulated. The Germans have settled this file, they occupy Luxembourg and they’re advancing rapidly in Belgium. And it isn’t only in Netherlands and Belgium where the situation is deteriorating. In fact, the Allied high command had planned, in a way, that Belgian and Dutch armies would offer, with all due respect, a symbolic resistance, to say the least. Belgium and the Netherlands aren’t military powers, these countries would even have wanted to remain neutral in the conflict. It’s obvious that the true test for the Allies, as for the Germans, will be the battle to be fought soon in France. When Belgium and the Netherlands kneel on May 13, three days after the start of the invasion, a German general named Heinz Guderian manages with his Panzers to literally break through the so-called impenetrable Ardennes forest. And there’s panic! How the Germans can they pierce such a thick forest with their tanks? Well, the tanks are advancing, quite simply! « There is an obstacle? For example, a tree? Ok. We’re going to roll over! There is a river? Well either we roll through it or we get the help of military engineers who quickly build bridges while being protected from the air by the Luftwaffe. » In other words, we pass, and we pass strongly! The breakthrough of the Ardennes at the height of the French municipality of Sedan creates a shock wave both among the Allies and among the Germans themselves. Two days later, on May 15, the Germans crossed the Meuse, an important river which borders the Netherlands, Belgium and France. The breakthrough of the Meuse at such an early date worries the allied generals to the highest point, since this river is part of the device defensive supposed to protect France. The breakthrough of the Meuse then allows the Germans to continue their advance in Belgium. The city ​​of Antwerp and the capital Brussels fall respectively on May 17 and 18, i.e., one week after the start of the campaign. The Allies are trying somehow to stop the Germans in Belgium with their best infantry divisions, as they attempt even to rescue the Dutch, but without success. From now on, they must concentrate on the essential: protect France! It’s necessary at all costs to reconstitute a front line. But where? This is the heart of the problem. To the south of the front, the Germans bypassed the Maginot line by their breakthrough in the Ardennes. Further north, as in 1914, they arrive from Belgium, notably with reinforcements obtained following the capitulation of the Netherlands, which allows them to intensify the offensive. The ideal for the Allies would be to reconstitute a front line modeled on the positions of the time of the 1914-1918 war, i.e., a front which would start from the French ports from the English Channel to the Swiss border, while of course protecting the French capital: Paris. But the situation is quite different. The Germans are clearly in control of the strategic agenda. The allied front is dislocated and the Germans intend to take advantage of the situation. On May 19, the French city of Amiens is besieged, as is that of Arras a little further north. These two cities were important defensive positions in 1914-1918, but they did not resist the attacks of the Luftwaffe and the Panzers, part of which is ably commanded by General Erwin Rommel. The Allies are so overwhelmed that the Germans manage to reach the Channel coast on 19 and 20 May. For their part, General Guderian’s Panzers even reach the town of Abbeville, towards Normandy. This is critical! We agree that things are really not going well, that’s obvious! But what to do now? The Allied front is literally cut in two! Forces allies from the north of this dislocated front then begin a withdrawal towards the coasts of the English Channel, more precisely towards the city of Dunkirk. Quickly, Dunkirk becomes a mousetrap. About 300,000 British, French and Belgians soldiers are there, whether in the city itself or on the surrounding beaches. Curiously perhaps, Hitler then orders his troops to halt, he asks to his Luftwaffe to relentlessly bombard Dunkirk and the beaches on May 25, but ordered infantry and tanks to camp in their positions. But why? This decision lends itself to debate, to say the least. Some claim that Hitler was trying to spare the remnants of the British contingent, in the hope of negotiating peace with England, a peace which would naturally be favorable to the Germans. But whatever, a good part of the top Allied command is convinced that the Battle of France is lost. The soldiers French trapped in Dunkirk resist as best they can. Their resistance is vital and deserves to be highlighted, as it saves time that must be invested in allowing the evacuation of hundreds of thousands of Allied soldiers stuck on the beaches. Yes, the decision is taken from the Allies: evacuate. It hurts, it’s shameful, but they have to make it obvious. The Battle of France is truly lost. I repeat: the battle is lost. And while the Allies realize that the situation is hopeless, on their side, the Germans continue their advances. Important ports like Boulogne-sur-Mer and Calais fell on May 25 and 26, 1940 respectively. The fall of these strategic cities forced the Allies to improvise a vast operation to evacuate their troops to England. This is called Operation Dynamo. And the task is colossal! It’s about evacuating 300,000 Allied soldiers, mainly British and French forces, which are stuck on the beaches from Dunkirk. Several elements contribute to make the perilous and titanic mission. For example, one must take into account the nature: tides, winds, swell at sea, in short all these ingredients which make navigation difficult in normal times. But precisely, we aren’t in normal times! It’s the war! There’s also a shortage of military vessels, including suitable troop transports. Imagine: the British government is even forced to requisition aid fishermen, because they need everything that floats to repatriate the soldiers! And as if that weren’t enough, during a week of Operation Dynamo, from May 25 to June 3, 1940, the Luftwaffe relentlessly attacked the beaches and the boats naval at sea. Despite all, the Allies hardly achieved their objective: to rescue the remaining of the British army on the continent, as well as significant contingents of the French army, which -once the soldiers have recovered and have been re-equipped- could be used in future operations. We can therefore say that the Western campaign, and in particular the Battle of France, is now almost finished. Belgium in turn capitulated on May 28 and King Leopold III, who refuses to be evacuated, is interned by the Germans. For its part, the city of Paris suffered some bombardments and was, so to speak, declared an “open city”. The Germans made their entry there on June 14. Imagine the reaction of Parisians when they see the Germans marching down the Champs-Élysées. It’s consternation. They can hardly believe it! Feelings of anger, disappointment and of sorrow mix. The situation is confused as the Germans settle in strength in the capital and across the country. France is now under occupation. But the fall of Paris doesn’t mean the complete cessation of fighting and military maneuvers. In fact, the Allies are carrying out Operation Ariel which consists of a complete evacuation of their troops to the mainland from western ports of France. In doing so, they manage to recover a few tens of thousands of additional soldiers in the first days of June. Moreover, and hold on tight, as France falls with both knees to the ground, when his capital is about to be captured and his army almost entirely annihilated, Italy attacks! Indeed, large contingents of Italian troops stationed on the southern border of France launched an offensive on June 10, 1940. Naturally, Mussolini wanted his share of the spoils. The Italian offensive is triggered in haste, without any real preparation or coordination. The almost defeated French soldiers even cause their Italian enemies to suffer losses clearly superior to theirs. Unfortunately for France, the situation is hopeless. She asks for an armistice in Italy, as she must, of course, negotiate a ceasefire with Germany. Ironically, and this is highly symbolic, Hitler demands that the negotiations and the signing of the armistice take place in the same place and in the same room where, in 1918, the Germans had been forced to sign the humiliating armistice that had helped end the 1914-1918 war. The negotiations, for what there’s to negotiate, begin on June 21 in Compiègne, in the famous car where the German armistice had been signed some 20 years before. Hitler travels for the occasion and the agreement is signed the next day, June 22. Two days later, on the 24th, an armistice was also signed with Italy and the capitulation of France becomes official the next day. The end of the Battle of France doesn’t mark the end of the war. It’s obvious, you’ll say to me, but there isn’t really a break in operations, both on the side of the Allies than on the Axis forces. For example, when the campaign begins in the West, on May 10, the British government sees fit to militarily occupy Iceland, if only to prevent the Germans from using this island as a starting point for their naval operations in the Atlantic. But as soon as France was defeated, Hitler eyed England. On July 1, 1940, he ordered preparations for Operation Sea Lion, which consisted of the land invasion of England and later of all the British Isles. The head of Germany doesn’t hesitate to interfere in the work of his staff, so much so that one wonders what his real intentions against England are. For example, does he still hope to negotiate peace with Churchill? Or rather, is it that the idea of ​​invading England is well fixed in his mind? Among the directives of Operation Sea Lion, September 15 is set as the date of the invasion, i.e., several weeks after the intention to invade was announced, last July 1. Ok, you tell me that it’s normal that the preparation of such an offensive takes time. I don’t mind, but you also have to take into account the weather and the season in the year, by September, summer already seems a long way off. Will the weather cooperate? There is also another important factor to take into consideration: could it be, let’s admit, that the British who defend their national soil, decide to resist the invaders until the last man? I think so yes! That could be! Clearly, British resistance will be strong, if not desperate. They’ll fight with all the means at hand. Already, on the seas and in the air, the British show resistance. It becomes evident that German ground forces will not cross the English Channel, like, for example, cruise passengers! Franco-British forces evacuated disaster to England are certainly in a sorry state, I grant you, but they still benefit from the experience of the fights of the previous weeks. The German generals realize this and try to convince Hitler to postpone the date of invasion. For its part – it was predictable – the weather is acting up. The invasion is undoubtedly compromised. Hitler declares a blockade of the British Isles on August 17, but no short-term invasion. We therefore understand that Operation Sea Lion is constantly postponed. British coastal towns like Dover, nevertheless suffered sporadic fire from the German guns located on the other side of the Channel, but no troops on the ground are preparing to conquer England. And as was to be expected, Hitler finally suspended all plans to invade England. This decision was taken in September 1940, but England remained on its guard. You never know, because as long as the Germans occupy France, the danger invasion of the British Isles persists. So that’s where things are on the Western front in this year of 1940. The story doesn’t stop there, but I open a parenthesis, if only to see a instant what is happening elsewhere in the world. In the vast theater of operations around the Mediterranean –and I include operations in Africa as well than those in the Near and Middle East –, let’s just say that the war is gaining momentum. For example, what first catches the eye is the beginning of the very long siege of Malta, this small island located in the heart of the Mediterranean, which is controlled by the British, and which is strategic. Malta is an excellent base for conducting combat and supply operations on the vast front of the Mediterranean, if although whoever occupies it holds a clear advantage over his opponent. The Axis forces, notably composed of numerous Italian naval air units, begin the siege of the island on June 11, 1940. This siege, imagine, will last more of two years to end only in November 1942. Fierce naval battles between the British and Italian navies for Malta, including around Cape Passero on October 12, and which give a taste of what is to come in the coming months regarding this highly strategic island. Elsewhere, the summer of 1940 was marked by the start of a military campaign in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, where the Italian army manages to take the strategic city of Kassala, on July 4th. On the strength of this victory, the Italians are back and advance towards British Somalia, 4 August. The British are trying so hard to resist, if not to delay the Italian offensive, but they were forced to fall back to avoid encirclement. Somalia falls around August 19. Insatiable in his thirst for conquest, Mussolini ordered another offensive, this time to the heart of Egypt at early September, from Libya which is a Italian colony. Again, the Italians initially encounter little resistance from the British, but the latter were more numerous and better organized than in Sudan or Somalia. The Italians are forced to stop near the strategic city of Sidi Barrani, and they are relatively far from the main English defense line in Egypt, the Mersa Matruh Line. So, in September the Egyptian front seems to be stable. A sign that the Italians don’t seem to have really specific objectives, their air force sporadically bombed everything of British interest. By example, military objectives were bombed in Bahrain and Cairo at the end of October, but without too many consequences for the British. Elsewhere on the African continent, we notice a strange situation which will be repeated in months and even years to come: believe it or not, French soldiers clash with other French soldiers! But how is it? Well, remember, once the defeat of France was confirmed, a part of the French army decides to swear loyalty to the new collaborationist regime directed by Marshal Pétain, what is called Vichy France, but we also know that another part of the army joined in London to the « dissident » regime of General Charles de Gaulle, called Free France. So the Free French forces of De Gaulle and the Vichy troops of Pétain clashed for the first time in Africa in November 1940. They fought sporadically in Gabon, where the important city of Libreville was captured by the Free French. Without being a resounding victory, the capture of Libreville is essentially symbolic, some see it as a sign of hope that France, at least the « free » one, can still and always contribute militarily to the war effort of the Allies. For its part, the Balkan region is in turn becoming a theater of operations. Mussolini makes the decision, highly contested by Hitler, to invade Greece on October 15. But why? What purpose? Out of jealousy towards Hitler and his recent conquests? Note that between October 15 and 25, 1940, when the first Italian troops set foot in Greece, there’s a two-week delay when the Italian dictator could have reconsidered his decision. But he doesn’t. His forces are advancing slowly but surely in Greece. Nevertheless, it spoils quickly for the Italians. Of course, the Greek population is worried. Greece isn’t a military power and several major cities in the country are bombed, including the important port of Salonika, on November 2. However, the Greek army won an important, if not a brilliant victory at the battle of Elaia-Kalamas in the first week of November 1940. In fact, the Italianarmy is downright humiliated and is forced to take a break by withdrawing in Albania, his starting base. As if that weren’t enough, the army Greek gives it back. Not only does it succeed in liberating the national territory, but it teaches her Italian rival a lesson again by pushing her much further inside of Albania in December 1940. A sign that this Greek victory isn’t only brilliant, but above all unexpected, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill orders a redeployment of part of the strength of its army from North Africa to the Greek theater of operations. He does so despite the contrary opinion of his generals, who maintain that it’s more important to defend Egypt and the Suez Canal than to open a front in the Balkans. But Churchill has the last word! It’s true that at the end of 1940, the Greek army controlled about a quarter of Albanian territory, which forced Mussolini to almost demand on his knees for help to the Germans. In fact, an official request for military assistance will be made on December 28, 1940. Nice Christmas present for the Germans, no? In addition, Italy is once again in difficulty on the maritime front of the Mediterranean. British naval air forces storm the important Italian port from Taranto, in the south of the country. The Battle of Taranto, which takes place on November 11 and 12, 1940, was a resounding victory for the British, their famous but relatively old-fashioned Swordfish aircraft take turns from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious with the aim of dropping their torpedoes against important Italian naval units based in this port. Moreover, in the days following the battle, observers Japanese come to visit Taranto in order to study the course of the fighting, in what appears as a precursor scenario, or a case study, of the famous naval air battle of Pearl Harbor in 1941. However, with their victory at Taranto, the British are strengthening the security of their supply lines in the Mediterranean, although the island of Malta is still under siege. The British are also looking to take advantage of Italian defeats in Taranto and in Greece to launch a major offensive in Egypt. We’re in the first week of December 1940 and it was the start of Operation Compass. The objective of Compass is to give the Westrern Desert Force the mandate to hunt the Italians from the territory around the Egyptian border town of Sidi Barrani. And it’s a smash hit for the Brits!; or again, a disaster for the Italians! Operation Compass leads to the rout of the Italian army which loses at least 40,000 soldiers captured or missing. Egypt is liberated from the presence of the Axis forces. The British are advancing rapidly in Libya and capture the important Italian fortress of Capuzzo in mid-December. In the Pacific theater, well yes, always the same war that Japan and China continues with a vengeance. At the end of March 1940, Japan installed a puppet government in Nanjing, on the very site of the infamous massacre of 1937. And there is fighting almost everywhere along the east coast of China. The battle raged in Shanxi in January, then in Chungking on the Yantgze River in the end of May. In northern China, the Chinese launched the so-called “Hundreds regiments » offensive, in particular with the aim of avenging Nanjing and allowing the communist forces to test their troops in large-scale conventional warfare. In September, the Japanese take advantage of the collapse of France in Europe to occupy its colony of Indochina. At the same time, the Japanese continue to face both nationalist Chinese and communist Chinese, who are themselves at war. In short, things aren’t going well in China! On the air war front, the year 1940 logically saw an intensification of operations, particularly with regard to the so-called « strategic bombing » operations. In March, for example, the Lutfwaffe attacked the British military base at Scapa Flow, Scotland, causing military casualties, but where there are also the first civilian victims on British soil. In response to this attack as well as the more controversial German bombardment of Rotterdam, the Allies retaliated by bombing several German cities such as Hamburg, Bremen, Cologne and Essen in the spring of 1940. And while ground fighting rages in France in the Dunkirk pocket at late May and early June, an intense air battle is fought in the English Channel, where Allied planes are desperately trying to prevent the Luftwaffe from inflicting more damage to Franco-British soldiers trying to evacuate the beach. But the air battle which definitely marks the spirits and which remains emblematic of nowadays, is the Battle of Britain which takes place in the second half of 1940. Lutfwaffe air campaign against England officially begins on July 10 by raids against British shipping convoys in the English Channel. The Germans are also seeking, you understand, to rid the English skies of enemies planes in order to allow a possible ground offensive. And there, it’ll hit hard! In the next days, the skies of the British Isles is covered with thousands of Luftwaffe aircraft that criss-cross not only England, but also Wales, Scotland and even northern Ireland. Already weakened by major losses during the French campaign which has just end, the Royal Air Force struggles outnumbered, but with the energy of desperation. During the summer, and particularly in August and September, the RAF suffered many losses, certainly, but also makes the Germans suffer from it. Its staffing problem is gradually compensated by a significant increase in the production of aircraft, in particular aircraft fighters such as the famous Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricaine, which prove to be excellent rivals to German Messerschmidt-109 and Messerschmidt-110 aircraft. And as the Battle of Britain advances in time, the British realize that they can count on other factors than the number of their planes and the bravery of their pilots. For example, often fighting over national territory gives downed pilots a chance to parachute knowing that they fall on friendly ground. Also, the German fighters, which take off from their bases on the continent, have a short range that often gives them barely 15 to 20 minutes of autonomy to fight over England. From mid-August 1940, the British can add to their defensive gear another component which becomes decisive in the outcome of victory: the radar. Radar allows ground support teams to spot well in advance the number and direction of enemy air assault waves. The consequence of all this is that the German bombers, in charge of pulverizing British towns and military installations, are increasingly left to themselves, as they lack support from their fighters and the radars allow them to be better combated. Radars are literally the eyes of the RAF. As I said, the Battle of Britain marks the spirits of the time. Besides, Prime Minister Churchill realizes this fully when he speaks in the House of the Commons his famous phrase: “Never was so much owed by so many to so few” And the battle continues! The Luftwaffe shells British cities daily, including the capital of London in September and throughout October, this is the period known as the London Blitz, where the British capital knows little respite. And RAF fighter pilots take off and shoot down German planes, get shoot down in turn, take off again to refuel with fuel and ammunition, to change plane. It’s a hellish pace! The city of Liverpool alone gets bombed at least 200 times! Civilians become in turn victims in the same way as the military. On November 14 and 15, the city of Coventry and its cathedral undergo one of the most heavy bombardments so far, causing about 2,000 casualties. And speaking of cathedrals, that of London also suffered a bombardment on December 29. And the British are fighting back, as best they can. The last weeks 1940 marked a period known as “bombing exchanges”, it means quite simply: « you bombard me, I bombard you back! » The RAF shells, for example, the German cities of Düsseldorf and Mannheim in December, and even the city of Turin which suffered a similar fate the same month. Eye for an eye, tooth for tooth, as its sayd. On the sea front, the naval battles of the year 1940 aren’t perfectly conclusive for one side or another, but the allied forces seem to have a slight advantage in the context of the setbacks of the Italian Navy in the Mediterranean. From February 15, Hitler ordered all-out submarine warfare, following the example of what Kaiser Wilhelm II had done in 1917. In other words, the German submarines have the green light to sink anything that floats, regardless of the nationality of the vessel caught for target. On the Norwegian side, when the Germans invaded the country in April, witness intense naval battles during the spring and summer. The Germans suffer significant losses, particularly in terms of destroyers, but managed to to sink the important British aircraft carrier HMS Glorious. In the Mediterranean, on the other hand, the maritime front is much more active. The first major incident was the Battle of Mers-el-Kébir on July 3, 1940, off the Algerian coast. Mers-el-Kébir is an important French naval base and the British want at all costs to prevent the French fleet on the spot from falling in the hands of the Germans. It was then that units of the Royal Navy attacked furiously and managed to sink or seriously damage three cuirassiers and destroyers, resulting in the death of at least 1,300 French sailors for minor losses on the British side. The news is all the more shocking for many French people, because it comes in the context of the terrible defeat and occupation of the country. Naturally, the Vichy government breaks diplomatic relations with Great Britain. Still in the Mediterranean, operations are continuing around Malta, which remains besieged. The British manage in August to protect a first convoy supply to the island which, as we know, is an important base of English naval force and a central pivot for the organization of future operations in this sector. But it’s probably in the Atlantic where the situation begins to deteriorate for the allies, September and October witness heavy losses in convoys of supplies. The German U-Boats are already active there and this is only the beginning. This overview of the year 1940 would not be complete without mentioning what’s happening on the various domestic fronts, as well as on the diplomatic front. On January 24, in Germany, Hermann Göring entrusts the SS, Reinhard Heydrich, with the mandate of design or gradually prepare a response, i.e., a « solution » to what was then called the “Jewish question”, all in anticipation of the terrible final solution that the Nazis are preparing for the Jews. I’ll come back to it, of course. In April and May, the Soviet secret services of the NKVD, under Stalin’s approval, massacred about 22,000 officers and members of the Polish intelligentsia, especially in the Katyn forest and elsewhere. In England, we know that Winston Churchill acceded to the post of Prime Minister after the resignation of his rival Neville Chamberlain, May 10, 1940, the very day of the German invasion in the West. He formed a wartime coalition government and a few days later, he makes a famous speech in which he can only promise the British blood and tears. Eh yes! The military organization is preparing in England, the rationing of raw materials and basic consumer goods is a reality. Churchill asks also military aid from Canada and the United States because it’s now obvious that the war will be long. Moreover, in the countries occupied by the forces of the Axis, the puppet governments of collaboration are taking place, this is particularly the case in France with the Vichy regime under Marshal Pétain, as well as in Norway under Nazi Vidkun Quisling. This doesn’t bode well for the occupied populations, especially the Jews. For instance, in Poland, the Jews of Warsaw are transferred to a ghetto, in an isolated district of the capital, the Warsaw ghetto is permanently cordoned and cut off from the rest of the city at mid-November. In the United States, President Franklin Roosevelt is re-elected for a third term, the November 5. Although he promises not to deploy American soldiers abroad, his election gives hope to the British to receive more military aid from from the American giant. Finally, on the diplomatic front, the year 1940 doesn’t give its place! From February, Germany and the USSR sign a new treaty in which Berlin can count on Moscow for the supply of raw materials, especially grain. The next month, Hitler and Mussolini meet in Austria, they agree that Italy will enter the war on the side of Germany at the time deemed “opportune”. The same month, and in this same logic, France and England agree not to sign a separate peace agreement with Germany. In short, alliances are solidifying. The months of April, May and June 1940 also saw the departure and training in exile of various governments of the occupied countries, governments which, for the most part, settle in London for the duration of the hostilities. The idea being that even if they’re under enemy occupation, the war must nevertheless be pursued with all available resources. It’s somewhat in this spirit that General Charles de Gaulle, in the context of the recent occupation of France, launches his famous appeal of June 18 where he asks the resistance continues. For its part, the British government was quick to recognize to De Gaulle and the government of Free France at the end of June, knowing that there’s another French government, that of Vichy, with which relations are broken in the context of the occupation and in that of the naval disaster of Mers-el-Kébir. In Eastern Europe, the year 1940 on the diplomatic front saw the USSR launch an ultimatum to Romania for control of the territories of Bessarabia and the north from Bukovina, yhe Romanians wanted to negotiate, but it was a waste of time, the Soviet forces occupy and annex these territories on August. Naturally, the Germans don’t lift a finger, which, by the way, brings Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov to reaffirm the solidity of the pact concluded with his counterpart Ribbentrop the previous year. This superficial rapprochement between Germany and the USSR leads in its wake to a rapprochement between the USA and Great Britain. Shortly before Roosevelt’s re-election, the two powers signed an agreement entitled Destroyers for Bases Agreement in which the United States donates 50 torpedo boats in exchange of land rights to British possessions. But the agreement is sharply criticized in the USA, which is supposed to be neutral in this war. At late September and early October, while Axis victories pile up in Europe, its member countries sign the Tripartite Pact, where mutual aid is promised, the alliance materializes for Germany and its allies. On October 23, Hitler also met the Spanish dictator Franco in Hendaye, in France, in the hope of convincing Spain to participate in the war alongside the Axis. In fact, Spain, which emerged bloodless and ruined from its terrible civilian war, remained neutral during the World War II. The next day, in Montoire, Hitler has an interview with Marshal Pétain, this meeting somehow marks the official start of France’s collaboration, at least that of Vichy, with Nazi Germany. On November 12, in Berlin, Molotov meets Hitler and Ribbentrop, they discuss the redistricting areas of Nazi and Soviet influence around the world. The Soviets claim want to control, or influence, Finland, Bulgaria, Romania and the Strait of Bosphorus despite Turkey’s neutrality. Without wanting to concede everything to the Soviets in exchange for their neutrality, Hitler remains a little more vague, but he evokes a world which would effectively be divided into zones of influence for Germany, the USSR, Italy and Japan. But the Soviets are greedy. The next day, November 13, the USSR demanded the complete and final liquidation of Finland. Hitler refuses and resists any Soviet attempt to expand further in Europe. The USSR is nevertheless invited to join the Tripartite Pact, but he hesitates since his territorial ambitions risk being sooner or later thwarted by those of Germany. However, satellite countries join the Pact, notably Hungary, Romania and Slovakia, these states are now members of the Axis forces. As you can see, this World War II has only just begun. The allies can they still hope for victory? Or is it better to make concessions and negotiate peace with the Axis? We’re in the third year. In the third year of what? Of a war that seems endless and perhaps without hope for many. The year 1941 begins. A bit like in Asterix, I would have the feel like telling you that all of Europe is occupied, all of it? No. Britain resists still and again to the Nazi invader. Of course, the fall of this military power that was France weighs heavily on the conscience of the Allies. And yet, France! His army was supposed to be the best in the world, the best trained, the best equipped and the best defended with its Maginot Line! Nop? The USSR, for its part, remained neutral in the conflict, so the British Isles are quite alone against Germany, which seems to have a free hand, with its Italian ally, to strike other blows in Europe, if not elsewhere in the world. England becomes in a way the place where the remains of foreign armies whose countries are now under occupation are collected. Everything is to be done, or rather to be redone. They must reconstitute the armies, think about new strategies, increase industrial production capacities and, perhaps, pray for the USSR and the USA to intervene in the conflict against the Axis. No, it’s really not going well for the Allies at the beginning of 1941. Here we go! We embark on this third episode dedicated to the World War II: the year 1941! But where to start? There’s no longer a Western front, nor even an Eastern front! Aerial warfare? Yes, there has sporadic fights in the skies. Naval warfare? Yes, there has clashes at sea that we’ll examine, but I would like taking you somewhere else. I’m talking about Africa, because, yes, it seems to be on the African continent that the fighting at early 1941 was the most intense and where the front was more activated. Remember that the north of Africa between Libya and Egypt, then to the southeast up to Somalia is then largely under Italian domination, these territories are -in fact- mostly Italian colonies that the Allies wish to capture. From January 5, British and Australian troops continue the operation Compass whose main objective is to liberate the entire North African coast between the Suez Canal and Libya. The Allies capture Bardia, a Libyan coastal town very close to the Egyptian border and it’s a resounding success! No less than 45,000 Italian soldiers were taken prisoner and the important port city of Tobruk is just 100 kms to the west. This is enough to boost the morale of the Allies, who really need it! Besides, two days later, on January 7, the Allies advanced west and seized at Tobruk airport. Everything is then implemented among the Allies for the final assault against Tobruk and, perhaps, the definitive expulsion of the Italians from the North African front. Tobruk indeed falls two weeks later, on January 21, with the fall of Tobruk, all hopes seem permitted, especially since the Allies are again moving towards the west of Libya. At the end of January, they’re about 150 kms west of Tobruk. And this other debacle of the Italian army raises concerns and questions in Berlin: can we really trust Italy to win the war? The question may seem relevant, but the important thing for Germany is to act to resume control of the situation in North Africa. On February 3, a former hero of the World War I, General Erwin Rommel is appointed head of a new formation called the Afrika Korps. In doing so, Germany officially commits to this theater of operations, if only to rescue Italy, which is struggling to maintain its positions in Libya, but in the meantime, the Italian situation in Africa is deteriorating at a crazy pace. On February 7, a British detachment managed to circumvent the Italian front and to force the capitulation, hold on tight, of 130,000 soldiers around Benghazi. Yes! Nasty nice welcome gift for Rommel! Especially since the progress of Allies West continues, still skirting the Mediterranean coast. For his part, Benito Mussolini is informed that German reinforcements are on the way, which effectively means that the Germans now take control of operations of the Axis in North Africa. It was time, because on February 9, the British Allies captured the city of El-Agheila located nearly 300 kms southwest of Benghazi, still along the coast, in the Libyan province of Cyrenaica. And the German reinforcements arrive next! Two days later, on February 11, the first elements of the Afrika Korps land in Tripoli, at the western end of Libya. Although they’re over 700 kms from the front, the Italians can start to breathe a little. Rommel himself set foot in Africa on the 14th and immediately led his army corps towards the east to make contact with the forward elements of the British army in El-Agheila. A first clash between British and Germans soldiers takes place on February 20, precisely for the control of El-Agheila, that Rommel decides to capture to prevent the enemy from advancing further west. At late March- early April 1941, the Germans finally regained control of the cities of El-Agheila and Tobruk, forcing the British forces to withdraw to the east, always along the coast, towards Egypt. Consequently, there’s a full shift of the situation! In barely a month, the Germans recaptured from the British all the Italian territory lost between El-Agheila and the Egyptian border. Clearly, the Libyan province of Cyrenaica is almost reconquered. However the thorn in the side of the Axis forces, remains the city of Tobruk, a highly strategic seaport. Unsurprisingly, the British defend the places with a few more resources. Judging at first glance that a direct attack is too risky, Rommel begins the siege of the city, in the hope that it capitulates quickly and the Axis advance into Egypt could resume. Rommel account on this port as a new supply centre. The siege of Tobruk begins on April 10 and the Germans also take advantage of this to secure the territory between this city and the Egyptian border, they recapture the Italian fort of Capuzzo at the same time. Despite everything, Tobruk resists and the city tests Rommel’s patience and nerves. The latter launched three attacks in the second half of April, but without success. Never mind, Rommel still makes the decision to rush to Egypt, knowing that surrounded Tobruk remains behind his front. Moreover, at the end of April, Rommel is forbidden to renew the offensive against Tobruk, so he favor the advance to Egypt. But the fights are tough, they fight almost directly on the border between Libya and Egypt. It’s May, 1941, and the British, mainly composed of Australian and Indian troops, intended to resist the Germans on a front line located between the Halfaya pass, in Egypt, and the fort of Capuzzo, in Libya. The clashes intensity in this sector of the North African front in May and June 1941 can be explained essentially by two reasons: first, the Germans need to win there in order to complete the siege of Tobruk and then be able to resume the advance towards Egypt. For their part, the British also need a victory there, precisely to -it’s hoped- finally clear Egypt and save the besieged Tobruk. Several operations carried out on both sides in this sector in the spring of 1941 ended by terrible losses, especially on the British side who are literally slaughter their tanks trying to cross the terrible Halfaya Pass. But in mid-June, Tobruk remains under siege. Still, during the summer and fall of 1941, the belligerents take a very relative break, if only because they’re exhausted. The allies return to the offensive in November, always with the aim of getting out of the pass of Halfaya, to liberate Tobruk, and then to continue the advance further west into Libya. Thus begins on November 18 Operation Crusader, which includes a series of operations extremely confused on the border between Libya and Egypt, with perhaps as peculiarity that the Allies try to circumvent the enemy positions by the south, much further inland. Despite a promising start, Operation Crusader quickly turns into a nightmare for the allies. On November 22 and 23, Rommel counter-attacked south of Tobruk, at the point where the Allies are, again, massacred their tanks to the point where the general German even manages to enter Egypt again, a few kilometers. But Rommel probably realizes he’s gone too far east given the exhaustion of its troops and its cruel lack of manpower and supplies. The Allies took advantage of this, on December 15, to launch a counter-offensive against the more limited. They manage to repel the enemy as far as Gazala, a little to the west of Tobruk, lifting the siege that lasted about 250 days! Rommel, however, clearly feels that the state of his army doesn’t allow him to maintain a stable position on Gazala. Consequently, he orders a general retreat, but in good order, towards El-Agheila, several hundred kilometers to the west, where he had started the campaign at the beginning of the year. In short, all has to be started over. The idea is therefore clear for Rommel at the end of the year 1941 in North Africa: he must wait for reinforcements and supplies. But, are they fighting only on the Mediterranean coast of Africa? Well, no! Other fronts, other infernos are fueled elsewhere in Africa, as well as in the Near and Middle East. Let’s see what’s happening elsewhere in Africa, in the « horn » of the continent. The start of the year 1941 is marked, from January, by a counter-offensive by British troops, essentially composed of colonial soldiers, to retake Ethiopia from the Italians, the offense is conducted from neighboring Kenya. Despite the weaknesses of the Italian army, the task is far from easy for the Allies, in particular because the North African front and the Balkan front –which I’ll discuss in a few moments– eat up a lot of resources. The idea is, essentially, to drive the Italians out of the British colonies invaded in 1940, then take their own colonies in the hope of permanently expelling them of the African continent. Parallel to the offensive in Ethiopia, the British are also pushing into Eritrea from Sudan, still in January, and they also risk carrying out an offensive to Italian Somalia. The idea is, you’ll understand, to attack the Italians on all fronts at once until there’s a crack in one place or another. From February, we can say that the Allies are making significant progress, particularly in Eritrea and Italian Somalia. For example, Mogadishu in Italian Somalia falls on February 25, and Eritrea is conquered so to speak at the beginning of April with the fall of Asmara, the capital. And the situation on this front is going from bad to worse for the Italians. On April 6 is the turn of the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa to fall, although the Italians seem offer a stronger resistance in this country, since they fight there all April. But it’s a waste of time for Italy. On May 5, 1941, five years after having had to flee his country then invaded, the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie then makes a triumphal entry in its capital, thus marking the end of the war in this theater of operations. The Italian surrender in the eastern horn of Africa becomes official on May 18. So, what happens then? Well, the Duke of Aosta, who had been appointed by Mussolini viceroy of East Africa, capitulates with all of his troops located in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. Of course, the war in Africa is far from over. However, the horn lies completely cleared of the Axis presence at the end of 1941, freeing troops allies who will be able to fight in other theaters of operations. As promised, let’s now move to the Near and Middle East. We can say that the Axis forces were present there at the beginning of 1941, but their positions remain fragile. For their part, the Allies, a bit like they do it in Italian Africa, wish to take advantage of this apparent weakness to quickly conquer these regions to ultimately bring back the main military effort to the European theater of operations. From the outset, the Axis benefited from support that was unusual, to say the least. Indeed, on April 1, Iraqi nationalist general Rashid Ali and three other army generals –a group dubbed the “Golden Square”– overthrow the regent’s pro-British government during a coup. In reaction, Great Britain dispatched reinforcements in Iraq in mid-April. His troops occupy the port of Basra in the south of the country then they move towards the capital Baghdad. The idea for the British is to secure the oil fields and, ultimately, to use the territory to launch future operations in the region, but the Iraqis loyal to the new regime are not letting it go. They hold their own to the British and immediately occupied a major air base to the west of Baghdad, the base of Habbaniya which is under siege at early May. Unfortunately for the young Iraqi army, it doesn’t benefit from almost any air support, so the aircraft of the Royal Air Force can at will strafing and bombarding his widely visible troops in the great desert space. The month of May in this theater of operations sees clashes taking place especially west of Baghdad, around the base of Habbaniya, the city of Falluja and from Baghdad. The remnants of the Iraqi army are forced to withdraw towards Baghdad whose fall is only a matter of time. And the Germans, on their side, what are they doing? Well, let’s say Hitler wishes to send reinforcements in Iraq. His support for General Ali’s nationalist movement is confirmed when he signed, at the end of May, Directive No. 30 which provides for the dispatch of reinforcements, including Luftwaffe squadrons and some Italian aircraft. But it’s « too little, too late », as its said. On May 27, British troops are on the outskirts of Baghdad, three days later, the German military mission presented in Iraq is leaving the territory, as are General Ali and some of his supporters. The next day, May 31, British soldiers entered Baghdad. It’s officially ended this very short Anglo-Iraqi war which, at the very least, has only lasted a few weeks. The Iraqi file having been settled in favor of the Allies, the front now seems to be move to the Near East in the summer of 1941. The Allies don’t fully control the Middle East, as Syria and Lebanon remain under Axis control through French forces on place remained faithful to the Vichy regime. For this campaign, the Allies essentially have troops from the British Empire, but we also notice the presence of free French forces. Yeah… you see me coming… It’s likely that the French will face the French again: the invasion of Syria and Lebanon began on June 8, 1941, and contrary to a certain popular belief that the Vichy troops only fought weakly, well in the facts, and especially the losses suffered by the Allies, seem to demonstrate that the fights are harder than you think. The fighting is particularly violent along the Litanie River, towards of Beirut, as well as at the Battle of Jezzine in mid-June, where the Australians despite the loss of several hundred of their soldiers. The Syria and Lebanon campaign lasts a total of five weeks. On July 1, the ancient city of Palmyra, located in central Syria, falls into British hands. About ten days later, on July 12, to Hitler’s chagrin, the French forces loyal to Vichy capitulate in Syria, it’s also over the presence of the Axis in this region. A few weeks later, on August 25, when the Soviet Union is at war -I’ll come back to this- the British invade Iran. Why?, will you tell me. Let’s say they do it for a series of strategic reasons, the main ones are the possessions of the oilfields in the region, as well as the capture of the network of railways in order to facilitate the supply of the new ally, which is of course the USSR. And now, let’s get closer to Europe, the main theater of operations where everything began. There too, the war on the old continent escalated in 1941. First, I come back to the file of the Greek front, or rather the Greek-Albanian front, insofar as, from the month of January, the Greek army maintained its advance in southern Albania in the face of demoralized Italian troops. They fight in particular in the Klisura pass, a winding passage through the mountains that separate Greece from Albania. The fighting are violent and constitutes probably the most important operation since the beginning of the Italo-Greek war, but in late January and early February the front appears to have stabilized, the news looks good for the Greek army. On the other hand, runs the rumor that an important movements of German troops are observed in Bulgaria, which ends up joining the Axis side on March 1. The rumor is quickly confirmed, but Greeks remain optimistic due in early March British reinforcements arrived in the Balkans, reinforcements which were originally intended for the North African front. For their part, the Italians seem reassured by the possible presence of German soldiers in the Balkan. At least, their morale is rising, to the point where, on March 9, the Italians go there of a counter-offensive on the Albanian front. Again, unfortunately for them –and much to Mussolini’s chagrin– the Italians are forced to suspend their offensive two weeks later. No progress is recorded and losses remain high. In other words, the assistance of the Germans becomes more than necessary. And it’s coming! The Italians can finally breathe. The blessing comes from heaven, finally, in the form of violent bombardments of the Luftwaffe which appears when Hitler made the decision to invade Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. This is the beginning of the Balkan campaign for the Germans. Yugoslavia is under attack from all sides, as German forces advancing into the country are also supported by Italian and Hungarian troops. The capital Belgrade was intensely bombarded for two days, but the resistance of the Yugoslav army is strong, at least stronger than expected, but this doesn’t prevent the Axis forces from advancing by outflanking the enemy from all sides. For example, on April 8, Germans rushed into Greece and captured the important port of Salonica, a port which had been so important to the effort of war of the Allies during the World War I. And as Greece is overrun from the east, the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade falls on April 12, these two falls -Belgrade and Salonika- mark a turning point in the Balkan campaign. Indeed, the military situation of the Allies deteriorates rapidly. The bulk of the Greek army is in southern Albania, and the British reinforcements arrived in Greece the previous month are struggling to coordinate with their Greek counterparts. Worse still, the fall of Belgrade opens a route of attack for the Germans towards Greece. On April 14, they manage to do what the Italians haven’t been able to do for months, which is to capture the strategic Klisoura pass, located in the center of the Greek-Italian front, on the border with Albania. By capturing the southern part of this strategic passage in the mountains, the Germans immediately blocked the line of retreat of the Greek army in Albania and prevent any communication with the British Army. Logically, the Greek army is completely surrounded, while the Germans finish their conquest of Yugoslavia and rush towards Athens, the Greek capital. On April 17, Yugoslavia officially capitulated and King Peter had to flee the country, a government Yugoslav in exile was then trained in London. As expected, the Greeks soldiers trapped in the Klisoura pass surrender in turn. In doing so, the Germans take more than 200,000 prisoners. It’s the end of the Greek army. On April 22, faced with the catastrophic situation of the Greek and Yugoslav armies, the British troops begin their evacuation from Greece, time is running out, because the Germans are advancing rapidly. Part of the British forces is evacuated to the island of Ridge, the other towards Egypt. The Germans therefore entered Athens on April 27, which marked the capitulation of Greece, but the Balkan campaign isn’t quite completed, the Germans want to seize the island of Crete, where the Allies are trying to organize the defense in an emergency. The Crete campaign begins on May 20, 1941 and lasts two weeks, it’s improvised insofar as the defense of the island is done with the remains of the British and Greek armies, and the offensive is hastily prepared on the German side. On May 20, thousands of German paratroopers were dropped on the island along with amphibious troops, the paratroopers of the Luftwaffe suffer terrible losses, thousands of them fall in battle, killed, wounded or captured, to the point where the relevance of employing paratroopers again for future campaigns was cuestioned. Creta, in this sense, is a warning signal, but the island was gradually conquered by the Axis, in particular thanks to the amphibious troops, but resistance is strong. On May 28, British troops undertake another evacuation, the island must be abandoned, so the invasion officially ends on June 1. The end of the campaign in the Balkans leads us to take stock this summer of 1941. As we have seen, the Allies are making good progress in the theaters of operations in Africa and the Middle East. Some will say that are theaters secondary compared with Europe, but the Allies don’t have the luxury of spitting on victories, even secondary ones. In Europe, it’s true, the Allies situation isn’t improving, they held up well in the Balkans, but the Axis forces control a large part of Europe continent and Hitler’s ambitions know no end. Because yes, Hitler wants more, always more. His thirst for conquests must once again be sealed, and the Soviet Union it’s the next target of his territorial ambitions It’s true that the Balkan campaign is delaying considerably the project of invasion of the USSR given the setbacks of the Italians which oblige the Germans to lend them a hand; nevertheless, the World War II took a decisive turn on June 22, 1941. On that day, Hitler carries out his long-standing plan to invade the USSR, in complete violation of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact signed in 1939. And hold on tight, because it’s a major campaign of the conflict that begins! Imagine! The Germans muster almost, without exaggerating anything, all their military resources! All! For Operation Barbarossa – name of code given to the offensive – the Germans have about 150 infantry divisions, that’s, 3.5 million soldiers! Supported by more than 3,500 tanks, 5,000 combat aircraft, tens of thousands of cannons and troops from member countries of the Axis. Naturally, the Red Army is powerful. But will it be able to face the invasion considering it suffers from cruel deficiencies in terms of the quality of its equipment and its training? It had done poorly against the Finns last year, will it be able to stop the German invasion this time? Because this invasion is tough! On June 22, 1941, therefore, the Germans advanced in the Soviet Union following three flanks, including one to the north towards Leningrad, another in the center towards the capital Moscow, then a third in the south towards the Caucasus. From June 24, the city of Vilnius in Lithuania falls, offering a blow to the local Lithuanians militias the opportunity to massacre dozens of Jews to applause and encouragement from the crowd… In addition, the start of the operation Barbarossa offers Finland the opportunity to go to war again against the USSR, the so-called the Continuation War, where the Finns have as their main objective to regain the territories lost in 1940, but without going any further. Anyway, the advance of the Germans in the Soviet Union during the summer of 1941 is dazzling. On June 27, Lithuania is completely occupied. The day after, more than 300,000 Soviet soldiers are surrounded near Minsk and Bialystok. On July 1, Riga, Latvia falls, and the country in turn finds itself occupied, opening suddenly the way to Leningrad, the ultimate goal of the northern flank in Russia. The next day, July 2, German forces and their Hungarian and Romanian allies advanced in Ukraine and the important Dnieper river is reached a few days later. The next week, on July 9, the city of Vitebsk in Belarus fell, marking the beginning of the important Battle of Smolensk and does seem to stop the Germans! Moreover, always at the beginning of July, Stalin publicizes his ‘scorched earth’ policy. In other words, they fall back burning and destroying everything in their path. Leave nothing to the invader! No matter, the German progression continues! It’s irresistible! Minsk, Belarus, fell on July 10 under the progress of the General Guderian’s panzers, who had distinguished in France in 1940. And the Russians devote quite a bit of resources to the defense of Smolensk, because that’s clearly the way to Moscow! Finally, after a few weeks of combat, Smolensk in turn falls in the first week of August. The Germans take more than 300,000 Soviet prisoners and also take advantage to consolidate their occupation of the Baltic States. While great news in itself, the fall of Smolensk poses a thorny problem for the German General Staff. Indeed, on August 12, Hitler, against the advice of his generals, decides to weaken the front of the center, i.e., the front to Moscow, in order to redirect troops to the northern fronts for Leningrad and southern to Crimea. With heavy consequences, some believe that this decision has a decisive impact on progress towards Moscow. Should it have been devote everything to the capture of the Soviet capital, or rather redirect troops elsewhere to complete the capture of other places of strategic importance? Clearly, this debate reflects the geographical immensity of this theater of operations. It’s not Poland or France, the borders of the Soviet Union are lost to infinity! Nevertheless, the German advance continues. On August 22, they approach Leningrad, which is gradually surrounded to be finally under siege at the end of the month. The civilian population is even conscripted to organize the defense. The siege of Leningrad officially begins on September 8, 1941 and it will last 900 days! Over two years! The sacrifices demanded of the population are appalling. I’ll return in future episodes. Further south, in Ukraine, the capital Kyiv is also surrounded and falls the next week. Here again, the Red Army sacrificed hundreds of thousands of soldiers in its defence. The fall of Smolensk and Kyiv constitute, so to speak, two keys which open the gates that converge on Moscow. On October 2, the order was given to resume the advance to the Soviet capital, this is the start of Operation Typhoon, where the Germans go for broke to deal the final blow to the Red Army. But in early October, conditions change on the ground, it’s much colder, the ground is muddy and it’s raining. It’s also snowing already. The troops are gradually bogged down, Infantry can march, hardly however, mainly vehicles and heavy equipment that can’t follow. Despite all, it seems that the Red Army is even more exhausted than its German rival. As proof, the Germans complete the conquest of a large part of Ukraine, they reach the Sea of ​​Azov in early October and reach to capture another 650,000 prisoners around Smolensk. So, they rush to Moscow! The ground seems to harden again in mid-October, allowing theoretically to vehicles to drive better, but it’s very relative. Like their compatriots in Leningrad, Muscovites are preparing, or resigning themselves, to a seat, officially announced to the inhabitants by their government on 19 October, which improvise defenses, their leader Stalin remains in the capital, but the government is evacuated. At the same time, Stalin was convinced that he could count on the neutrality of Japan in Far East to urgently transfer a few dozen Siberians infantry divisions to Moscow, this is normal because a neutrality pact has been signed between the two countries on April 13. Japan has other plans. I’ll come back! And although the situation is critical for the Soviets, they can count on certain elements to avoid defeat. First, I said, the weather factor is important. The so-called General Winter is beginning, plus the time factor comes into play. All the time the Germans take to complete the conquest of Ukraine delays the capture of Moscow. Nevertheless, the strategic mining and industrial center of Kharkov falls at the end of October and the Germans are approaching the important port city of Sevastopol. At the end of November, despite the terrible cold ambient, the battle on the outskirts of Moscow intensifies. The Germans capture certain suburbs of the capital, notably those near of the Volga Canal, but the continuation of the offensive becomes impossible. Imagine! It was around -40 degrees Celsius at the beginning of December 1941 in Moscow! How to continue the attack under these conditions? German soldiers don’t even have combat gear suitable for wintery conditions! Vehicle engines won’t start! They’re more likely to die because cold than in combat! Temperature obliges, the German staff then took the decision to suspend the offensive on the Moscow front on December 5. Three days later, in the middle of a blizzard, the Soviet counter-offensive began to clear the capital and it’s a success. The Germans are forced to retreat and the eventual capture of the Soviet capital is no longer possible. Moscow is therefore temporarily saved. However, on December 17, the Germans began their siege of Sevastopol and that of Leningrad continues. Moreover, in Leningrad only 3,000 inhabitants die daily of hunger, disease and cold. Yes, 3000 per day! Now that the Soviet Union is at war under the effect of the German invasion, one can reasonably believe that the war is global. Really? What about the side of the Pacific and the Far East in 1941? In fact, if we move towards this vast theater of operations, we observe that the beginning of the year was marked by the continuation of hostilities in China. First, the rivalries between nationalist Chinese and their communist compatriots continue, despite their must fight against the common enemy: the Japanese invader. Moreover, speaking about the Japanese, they continue to progress in Asia. On 28 July, against the background of the defeat of France, they invade French Indochina, but simultaneously allow the Vichy administration to continue its work. In exchange -if one can call it an « exchange »- Vichy must leave the Japanese occupy and use their bases in Indochina. Probably more worrying for the Allies is the fact that in early November the Emperor Japanese Hiro-Hito approves plan to attack US naval base of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. In fact, Americans have known since at least July the intentions of the Japanese, but they do nothing. We suspect that eventually the Japanese will end up attacking massively in the Pacific Ocean. On September 6, the Japanese cabinet makes the decision to go sooner or later at war with the USA if the oil embargo isn’t lifted. On the other hand, one fact remains: the Allies aren’t really ready to face to this eventuality. On November 17, the American ambassador to Japan, Joseph Grew, telegraphs to his government that the Japanese are about to attack Pearl Harbor! They ignore him; at least officially, because, contrary to what is often said, the USA facing with the Japanese threat don’t remain totally silent, nor with their arms crossed. On November 26, the US State Department sends Japan the Hull Note, of which the contents may be construed as a commitment by the USA and Japan to not to violate international rules on diplomacy, trade, etc. So, the Hull Note is intended as a non-aggression pact between nations, but it’s also interpreted as a casus belli, insofar as the Japanese perceive it as an ultimatum for evacuation from China and other territories they occupy in Asia. Certainly, on the same day that the Hull Note is sent, i.e., on November 26, 1941, a Japanese fleet of 33 auxiliary ships and aircraft was spotted in the Pacific, this fleet sails towards the Hawaiian Islands. Can they finally ring the alarm bells in Washington? The United States is clearly targeted! The Japanese aren’t there as tourists! Moreover, on December 2, the Japanese Prime Minister publicly rejects the Hull Note. In short, wake up! The attack is coming to big steps! But despite the many warnings, what had to happen… happens. On December 7, 1941, the American naval base at Pearl Harbor suffered a terrible assault from the Japanese naval aviation forces. In just a few hours, the US Navy loses four of its cuirassiers sunk, four others seriously damaged, at least 300 aircraft destroyed or damaged, not to mention more than 3,000 sailors killed, injured or missing. Needless to say the shock wave created at the USA and around the world following this « surprise » attack by the Japanese. Now, we can really say that the war is global. Unsurprisingly, US President Franklin Roosevelt asks the US Congress to meet urgently. The USA in turn declares war on Japan! And this Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor is part of a campaign expansion throughout the Pacific. As they attack Pearl Harbor, the Japanese rush towards British Thailand and Malaya, they also throw air offensives against Guam, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Shanghai, Singapore and the American island of Wake. In short, it’s the total! The next day, December 8, the Japanese captured the Gilbert Islands, located in northeastern Australia, the same day they attack the British colony of Hong Kong and their troops set foot in Malaysia. It’s simple: the Allies are completely overwhelmed, and above all ill-prepared. There has fierce fighting between American and Japanese soldiers on Wake Island, which belongs to the USA and which is completely lost in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. From December 11 to 23, the Japanese tried several times to seize it to its strategic importance in the middle of the ocean, they undergo heavy casualties, but the American garrison eventually surrendered. The Japanese invade Burma that same month and continue their advance in Malaysia, they also occupy the northern islands of the Philippines and Manila, the capital, is declared an open city. The American soldiers who defend this possession retreat to the peninsula of Bataan, while observing the Japanese landing in Sumatra, Indonesia. For its part, Hong Kong finally saw Japanese soldiers land on its soil on December 18, the resistance there lasted a week, where the colonial British troops put up admirable resistance, but in vain. In short, we can say that the Japanese now occupy large portions of the islands of the Pacific and South Asia. At the end of December 1941, their troops even threatened Australia and are not far from the border with India. So here is an additional enemy for the Allies to fight, and it’s a big one! The expansion of the war in the world in 1941 shows us that there are fighting almost on all continents. However, the war on the air fronts and on the seas is far from having taken a break; on the contrary, here too, it intensifies. Let’s take the case of air-fights first. During the first six months of 1941, before the German invasion of the Soviet Union began, the British islands are always and again the object of bombardments by the Luftwaffe. London is regularly bombed throughout January, despite the fact that the Royal Air Force responded as best it could by attacking German cities. For example, on January 11, a raid on London killed and injured at least 120 people, the Bank of England is hit and the underground station just below is demolished, even Buckingham Palace on March 8 is hit by bombs. Other cities such as Plymouth, Bristol and Belfast also bear the brunt of these attacks almost incessant which also continues throughout April. On May 10, it’s the turn of the House of Commons, the heart of the British parliament, to be hit by bombs. But over time, the air blitz against the British Isles, without completely ceasing, subsides. RAF bombers are increasingly capable of fighting back and German cities are paying the price. Berlin is particularly affected in the fall of 1941, but British losses in these raids were heavy. Moreover, in anticipation of the campaign which begins in Russia in June, the majority of Luftwaffe bomber resources are diverted to this front, where the capital of Moscow is the subject of particular attention. In addition, the air war in 1941 also raged in the Mediterranean. More precisely, as was the case the previous year, in 1940, the strategic island of Malta held by the British is widely coveted. The Luftwaffe attacks and seriously damages the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious which, precisely, is on its way to supply Malta. This presence of German planes in this theater of operations sends a signal clear that, as we see in the Balkans, the Germans intend to take from the Italians control operations. But the island of Malta remains under strong pressures, the supply situation is seriously deteriorating. Always in January, the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious suffered a second attack from the Luftwaffe and Malta is in turn bombarded. The intensity of the bombings against Malta is quite terrible, the situation of the island in March is critical, the bombardments are daily, because the presence of the forces allies on the island considerably harm the supply of the Axis in Africa. Rommel regularly complains about it, and to say that Malta is bombed is almost an understatement. On December 1, 1941, believe it or not, the island suffered its 1,000th bombardment since the beginning of the war! Who can still doubt the strategic value of Malta? On the sea front, there again, the war is experiencing an undeniable expansion. Still in the theater of operations in the Mediterranean, the British are trying to deny the Axis naval forces this strategic sea. In March, the Royal Navy inflicts another defeat to the Italian Navy, this time during the Battle of Cape Matapan, in southern Greece. The British seem to favor the use of the aircraft carrier, where the aircraft can take off and attack the heavy Italian cuirassiers. During this battle, more than 2,000 Italian sailors died there for losses insignificant on the British side, which suggests a change of dogma, where the use of the aircraft carrier, as I said, now seems privileged to that of the cuirassier. And times are tough for the naval forces of the Axis in the Mediterranean. In April, a month after the Cap Matapan disaster, the Italian Navy takes another setback. This time, British destroyers manage to sink five German transport ships responsible for supplying Rommel and the Afrika Korps in North Africa. The problem? These ships are supposed to be protected by three Italian destroyers, which suffered the same fate. And the beneficial effects of the Axis disasters in the Mediterranean are beginning to make felt for the Allies. For example, despite constant aerial bombardment, the supply of the island of Malta is more and more regular from August. As if that weren’t enough, the Italian Navy suffered another humiliating defeat in the Mediterranean in November, this time an Axis supply convoy nicknamed Duisburg is attacked by the Royal Navy, at the junction with the Adriatic Sea. Results? At least seven Italian merchant ships are sunk and their escorts severely damaged. No need to specify at this stage that the Italians are severely criticized by the Germans, this string of chain disasters squarely jeopardizes the effort of the Axis war on the North African front, especially since the British had absolutely no difficulty in decoding Italian naval communications. In this sense, the maritime front of the Mediterranean is of great importance for the belligerents, without there being any territory of specific strategic importance to capture –apart from the island of Malta– the sea plays an important role in supplying both from the African and the European front. The belligerents then sought, in 1941, to control both the sky and the sea. On the side of the Atlantic Ocean, the naval war also sees an intensification in operations and battles in 1941. From the beginning of the year, in February, it becomes evident that the submarine warfare practiced by the Germans is becoming more aggressive, better organized, and above all, more deadly for anyone in the Allies that risk crossing the ocean. The months of February, March and April 1941 in the Atlantic were particularly deadly, allied supply convoys to England are literally decimated by the German submarines attacking in groups, like a pack of wolves. For example, for the single day of April 4, an allied convoy alone loses 50% of its units. The submarines attack in groups, then disappear immediately, they’re difficult to be spotted, then to sink. Anglo-Canadian naval forces tasked with patrolling the North Atlantic are struggling to compete with submarines. A somewhat encouraging sign, however, on May 8, a German submarine, U-110, is captured relatively intact and the Allies put hand over a communications encryption device named Enigma. The decoding of German communications is a long-term task which takes time. The idea is, as always, to seek solutions to reduce the terrible losses suffered in the convoys responsible for bringing to Europe vital supplies to the Allied war effort. The Battle of the Atlantic in 1941 was also marked by some clashes involving area units. For example, despite their neutrality, American warships become the targets of German submarines from time to time. On April 10 and 11, the destroyer USS Niblack was attacked as it attempted to rescue the survivors of a sunken Dutch liner. The next month, on 21 May, an American freighter, the SS Robin Moor, is sunk by the German submarine U-69, in the Atlantic. Naturally, the American government and public opinion are outraged. Roosevelt then declares a state of « unlimited national emergency », just to reassure his opinion and to send a message to the Germans to stop attacking American ships, but at the same time, this type of incident involving American ships becomes almost inevitable. Why? For the simple reason that since January, the American Congress is preparing to vote on the “Lend-Lease” program which aims to provide friendly countries, such as Great Britain, China, and later the USSR, of war material without intervening directly into the conflict. It’s a kind of “very participative neutrality”! The following month, President Roosevelt signed the famous Lend Lease Act, which therefore allowed the Allies to buy military equipment from the USA while deferring payments once hostilities have ended. The battle in the Atlantic therefore has a major impact on what can be called the “diplomatic front”. The Allies are struggling to fight the Germans at sea, if although the help of the USA becomes more and more essential. Moreover, on August 1, the USA declared an oil embargo against their « aggressors ». The next week, the 9th, the Atlantic Charter was signed between Roosevelt and Churchill. This charter is important because it sets out the living conditions of a post-war world, particularly with regard to the freedoms of peoples, freedom of trade, circulation at sea, disarmament, etc. We can even say that this charter will become the basis of the future United Nations. While waiting for the war to be over and despite the many failures suffered in the Atlantic that year, the Allies can nevertheless post a victory at the end of May, when an epic naval battle to hunt down the pride of the German navy, the heavy battleship Bismarck. This huge ship has claimed many victims since the beginning of hostilities. In last date, May 24, the Bismarck managed to sink the British battlecruiser HMS Hood, off Greenland in the North Atlantic. The sacrifice of HMS Hood enabled British naval air forces at the end of May to locate and then hunt down this dangerous enemy deemed almost unsinkable. Several buildings of surface try to encircle and fire jointly on the Bismarck, which is defending literally like a devil in holy water! The Swordfish’s torpedo planes are also put to use, as they did in Taranto, in the Mediterranean, the previous year against the Italian navy. The Swordfish take turns taking off from the aircraft carrier HMS Royal Ark and attempt to locate the Bismarck and fire their torpedoes. One of them reached the Bismarck’s rudder, which, unable to maneuver freely, begins to describe wide circles without could regain control of its path. This long-term battle at sea lasted two days, May 26 and 27, 1941. Then the Germans decided to scuttle the ship, in order to limit the casualties and falling into enemy hands. The loss of the Bismarck was certainly a blow to German morale, but their efforts with a view to winning the battle in the Atlantic in 1941 don’t seem to want to diminish. Moreover, on September 4, a U-Boat didn’t hesitate to attack an American destroyer, the USS Greer, while they know that the USA is neutral at this time, even if the Germans plead, or complain, that the Americans participate more and more to the protection of convoys to Europe. The next month, on October 17, the situation degenerated. Another American destroyer, the USS Kearny, is again attacked by a U-Boat, this time killing eleven American marines, who, as a result, become the first American military victims of the conflict while the USA is always neutral! Two weeks later, on October 30, the American destroyer USS Reuben is attacked and sunk by a U-Boat near Iceland, this time about a hundred American marines died there and their ship becomes the first US naval unit sunk during hostilities. Remember: America is still neutral at the time of the facts! Oh yes! You already knew that! And to end today’s episode, I invite you to explore the highlights on the home front in 1941, where, like the military fronts, the amount of drama humans can no longer be counted. As I mentioned before, regime of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers are emerging in Europe. In the present case, on January 5, 1941, the Belgian Léon Degrelle, leader of the fascist party of Wallonia, pronounced in Liège a speech of support from the Reist party to the Nazi regime, his supporters provide also volunteers in the German army. At the same time, in France, Admiral François Darlan, the right arm of Marshal Pétain, becomes Vice-Chairman of the Board, thereby marking a strengthening of the collaboration with the Nazi regime. Pro-Nazi sympathies also arise in Yugoslavia, before the official start of the April 6 invasion, as we saw. On March 21, the Yugoslav cabinet resigns in protest against the prince regent Paul who adheres to the cause of the Nazis. Moreover, a few days later, a coup orchestrated by the army expelled the regent Paul in order to install the young crown prince Pierre there. Combined with setbacks of the Italian army in the Balkans, the events in Yugoslavia convince Hitler to invade the country and thereby delay the invasion of the Soviet Union. Once occupied, Yugoslavia was divided by the Germans. For instance, they create the Independent State of Croatia, which has an official policy of collaboration with the occupier. However, the resistance is organized in Yugoslavia. For example, the movement of Chetniks seek to restore the monarchy and collaborate more or less with the German occupier at first. On the other hand, the communist resistance is also organized and tends to align on Moscow, at least officially in the early days of the occupation. However, what is more worrying are the increasingly proven rumors to the effect that Jews all over occupied Europe became the object of persecutions and assassinations. For example, in January, the rumor hovers like what Jews are executed in Bucharest by the fascists of the fearsome Guard of Iron. The same month begins the mass deportation of Austrian Jews to Poland ghettos. On March 1, Hitler orders the expansion of the Auschwitz prison camp in Poland, then commanded by SS Rudolf Hoss. On June 23, the day after the invasion of the Soviet Union, Hitler arrives at a new headquarters in Rastenburg, located in the middle of a forest, in East Prussia. He’ll spend about 800 days there until November 1944. The goal being to be closer to the evolution military operations in Russia and, unfortunately, also to monitor more closely what will in time become the « Final Solution » against the Jews. In this respect, from early July 1941, in the midst of the Soviet invasion, began a series of massacres of Jewish populations around Vilnius, Lithuania. This so-called “Poneriai Massacres” result in the deaths of at least 100,000 Jews shot or burned alive, these massacres are periodic and are mainly the work of the fearsome Einsatzgruppen, supported by other S.S. groups and Lithuanian collaborators. Precisely, the leader of the S.S., the sinister Heinrich Himmler, takes pleasure in the Jews extermination and is certainly zealous in the execution of what becomes the Final Solution. In July, Himmler had another large concentration camp built, that of Majdanek, in Ukraine, while the Jews massacre continues almost everywhere in the territories occupied Eastern Europe. The same month, moreover, Hitler asked Hermann Göring to order Reinhard Heydrich to submit a general plan of costs incurred and the logistical resources required to complete the final solution to what he calls the « Jewish question ». It was this same Heydrich who, on September 1, 1941, signed a decree obliging all Jews from the occupied territories to wear the Star of David, written on it in German the word Jude, Jew. At the same time, the Jews in the occupied territories are in turn under the Nuremberg Laws, which I discussed in the first episode. And the massacres of the Jews continue, let’s cite a few examples. End of September, about 30,000 of them are murdered around Kyiv. In October, about 30,000 others suffer the same fate in Crimea, murdered by shot or burned alive, officially in retaliation for the attack on a high officer in the Romanian army. Speaking of high-ranking, always in October, but in France this time, Lieutenant-Colonel Karl Hotz, the local German commander at Nantes, is assassinated, about fifty civilians are killed in retaliation. This incident will unfortunately serve as a “model” for the Germans in the application of their occupation policies in France. Today I take you for a ride in 1942. For many historians, this year marks the height of a war truly global. When will it end? No one can predict it. One thing is certain, there is action all over the world. Here’s the situation on January 1, 1942. In Europe, first of all, the Axis forces occupy almost the entire continent apart from the British Isles which are still resisting and which Hitler seems to have given up trying to seize to concentrate on a new, major front: the Soviet Union. I say « major », because the war on this front alone consumes at least 70% resources of the German army, but the Third Reich nevertheless occupies very vast portions of this immense territory. The clashes there are wild, ideological same. The loss? Appalling on both sides. In Africa, the arrival of Marshal Rommel at the head of the Axis forces is beneficial for Italian and German fighters. Rommel regains the initiative from the British who must again devote significant resources to the protection of Egypt and the Suez Canal. The outcome on this highly mobile front remains uncertain. At sea, the battle of the Atlantic is raging and not necessarily to the advantage allies. These suffered terrible losses, especially in merchant ships laden with to supply the British Isles. Still on these islands, the Luftwaffe considerably reduced the frequency of its raids which nevertheless remain disturbing and deadly. In contrast, the Royal Air Force is stepping up its bombardments against Germany and its war industry. But the great novelty is the brutal and shattering entry into the war of the Japanese Empire. The assault on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in the end of 1941 marks the opening of a whole “new” front: the Pacific Ocean. The arrival of the USA in the war is at the same time a real lifeline for the Allies. Here we go! World War II continues. We’re in 1942! Why not, precisely, move to the Pacific side? Don’t worry, I’ll come back for a ride in the West, but we can’t ignore the seriousness of the situation in the Far East since the attack on Pearl Harbor. And I tell you, I’m going to talk about the main operations on this front in 1942, but be very attentive to the fact that the geography, in this theater of operations, it’s not simple. Why? Well because this region of the world is made up of hundreds, if not thousands of small islands and atolls of varying sizes, often separated by hundreds, if not thousands of miles right in the middle of the largest ocean in the planet. In short, if you have a map of the Pacific at hand, it’ll not be a luxury, because it can sometimes be difficult to find one’s way. Moreover, the Allies didn’t barely time to get up from the punch received at Pearl Harbor that the Japanese attack just about anywhere in the Pacific! From the start of the year, the Japanese attacked the Philippines. Manila falls on January 2 and the allied forces, mainly composed of American and Filipino soldiers, are forced to retreat towards the Bataan peninsula which is now under siege. The Japanese also rush into British Malaya, they progress rapidly to the capital Kuala Lumpur, which falls on January 11, and threaten the big island of Borneo, today shared between Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. Speaking of Indonesia, the Japanese set foot in what were then called the Dutch East Indies, still in January, and hold on tight, it’s not over! On January 20, the city of Singapore, located in the southern end of the malaise peninsula is bombarded and also threatened with being conquered. At the same time, the Japanese attacked the town of Rabaul, located in Papua New Guinea. Need I specify that the Allies are completely overwhelmed? At the end of January, British troops in Malaysia withdraw towards Singapore, in the hope of using the city as a fulcrum to stop the march of the Japanese to the south. But the task is difficult, if not impossible, because the Japanese, again, attack everywhere! Despite British resistance, Singapore eventually fell on February 15 after 50 campaign days. It’s a real disaster. The Japaneses capture at least 130,000 British and colonial troops despite superiority initial numerical on the side of the Allies. Still at the end of January, the Japanese invade Burma and threaten the most important city of the country, Rangoon which must be abandoned in mid-February. In the Philippines, the resistance in the Bataan peninsula continues, but for how many time yet? In fact, on February 22, President Roosevelt ordered Commander US troops, General Douglas MacArthur to evacuate the Philippines. Will the Japanese stop there? Well, no! On February 28, they disembark in Java and capture Jakarta a few days later, the capital of the Dutch East Indies. Another worrying element for the Allies: the conquest of Southeast Asia by the Japanese brings them dangerously close to Australia, in particular because the Japanese soldiers land in New Guinea in March, while continuing their conquest of Java and Burma. In mid-March 1942, the Japanese occupied Mindanao, the southernmost island of the Philippines and land in the Solomon Islands, in this which appears to be a massive move to encircle Australia. The siege, therefore, is tightening. To ward off the encirclement of Australia, it’s important to resist the Philippines, but it gets complicated. At late March, early April, the Japanese manage to corner 25,000 American and Filipino soldiers in the Bataan Peninsula. The first week of April is marked by heavy fighting. Americans and Filipinos resist as best they can to defend this last pocket of resistance in the Philippines, but the situation seems hopeless. Bataan finally falls on April 9. In doing so, the Japanese, from the start of the campaign of the Philippines, hold some 80,000 American and Filipino prisoners. These prisoners suffer a sad fate. May 1, 1942 follows what is called the « Bataan Death March », where Allied prisoners of war are forced to walk about 100 kms in appalling conditions in order to reach the prison camps. At least 20,000 of them die on the way! And the situation seems hopeless for the Allies in the Pacific. The Japanese occupy the main islands of Southeast Asia and their navy seeks to challenge again that of the Allies, particularly of the USA. The first week of May 1942 saw the first clash between aircraft carriers enemies in the Coral Sea, a sea located northeast of Australia, just southern Solomon Islands and eastern Papua New Guinea. In terms of battle casualties, this battle is a Japanese victory, but at the same time it’s the first major confrontation where we can say, without being too mistaken, that the Allies manage to stop the enemy advance in the Pacific. At the very least, the Japanese fail not immediately settle in this region to eventually invade Australia. And the battle of the Coral Sea illustrates certain particularities of the war of the Pacific, on which I’ll return. It first shows how huge the forehead is. For example, belligerents aircraft carriers who clash are separated by several hundred kms in the mids of the ocean. So, it’s difficult, especially with the technology of the time, to spot the enemy fleet and planes. Finally, about four days after the official start of the battle, the opponents meet each other. Two American aircraft carriers confront two Japanese aircraft carriers. Given the heavy damage suffered by the buildings Americans, we can say that the Battle of the Coral Sea is, at best, a victory Japanese tactics, otherwise a draw. For the Allies, however, this battle took on the character of a strategic victory, insofar as the Japanese call off their planned assault on the city of Port Moresby, the largest city in Papua New Guinea, located directly north of the Australian coast. What’s more, I’ll get to that in a moment, the Allies manage to repair faster their buildings damaged unlike the Japanese who, moreover, will be deprived of these carriers at the Battle of Midway the next month. But overall, the situation for the Allies is deteriorating, when they stop the Japanese in the Coral Sea, they capture the island of Corregidor in the Philippines, thus marking the end of a campaign of several weeks and the capitulation of the last American and Filipino soldiers. The Japanese take 12,000 prisoners. At late May, the Japanese also completed the conquest of Burma and prepared other conquest operations, this time towards the eastern Pacific Ocean, to the United States. Clearly, the Japanese want to get closer to the Hawaiian Islands and the American territory, but first they operate a diversion to a place where, quite frankly, we probably wouldn’t have expected them. At late May, early June, the Japanese land much further north in the Pacific Ocean, in the Aleutian Islands, near Alaska! In fact, the Aleutian Islands are numerous and the Japanese choose some of them, particularly they landed troops on the islands of Attu and Kiska. In doing so, we can say that this is a first landing on American soil and this occupation of a relatively sparsely inhabited territory will last about a year. But as I said, the Aleutian Islands campaign is more of a diversion, because the decisive naval battle being played out in the Pacific Ocean is that of Midway which begins on June 3, 1942. What is Midway? It’s an atoll that is to say a very small island of barely 6 kms2 located in the middle from nowhere! In fact, Midway is located about 2,000 kms northwest of the Hawaiian Islands -I know it’s far, but it’s one of the few landmarks!- about 3,000 kms south of the Aleutian Islands and at least 4,000 kms east of Japan! Clearer? This small atoll is of strategic importance, especially for the Americans, because it serves as an outpost at Pearl Harbor. Midway, with its few airstrips, constitutes an important base to extend the range of operation of the planes and even ships in the Pacific, because for this battle which begins about six months to the day after the attack of Pearl Harbor, the belligerent Japanese and Americans need everything that floats, and more particularly anything that floats and can transport planes! And for a battle that’s literally taking place in the middle of nowhere, the opposing forces are considerable. The Americans line up the equivalent of 3 aircraft carriers grouping together some 360 ​​aircraft. On the Japanese side, we’re talking about 4 aircraft carriers for 250 aircraft. As in the previous month in the Coral Sea, the initial difficulty consists in spotting the enemy fleet. The planes take off from the aircraft carriers, and also from Midway for the Americans, in order to seek an enemy who seems well hidden in the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. After long hours of research, the belligerents are found. From June 4 to 7, the battle rages in the sky and at sea. The Japanese seek at all costs to capture Midway to use this atoll as a springboard for a future assault on Pearl Harbor. The air warfare are unparalleled in violence so far, hundreds of fighters clash and the Americans are desperate to sink the aircraft carriers Japanese with specially designed dive bombers. The losses are heavy on both sides, in addition to the many downed planes crashing in mid of the ocean, all the Japanese aircraft carriers are sinking! Four of them are thus lost for only one on the American side. This is a terrible blow for the Japanese. The end of the Battle of Midway, June 7, marks a turning point in the war in the Pacific, it represents maximum Japanese progress towards the east. These will go no further. The Hawaiian Islands are now out of reach and the Americans can think of a gradual reconquest of the Pacific. Now let’s take a trip to Russia. Here too, the situation is at least precarious for both sides. Admittedly, the Soviets managed to partially extricate Moscow at the end of 1941, but the losses suffered are appalling. In the first weeks of January, Soviet Marshal Zhukov launched another Moscow clearing offensive. Despite the still very heavy losses, the Germans back about 100 kms from the capital. Indeed, we observe that at late January, the Axis forces retreated over several parts of this huge land front, but the siege of Leningrad continues. Of his side, Hitler, despite the recent failures of his armies, demanded that the offensive be renewed. On April 5, he had his Directive No. 41 which calls for a renewal of the offensives, this time with the region as its objectives of the Caucasus for its oil fields and possibly the capture of the important industrial city of Stalingrad. Against this background, in early May, the Germans gradually reconquered Crimea lost some time before and launched a second offensive to retake Kharkov, in Ukraine, in a month-long battle. Despite their double numerical superiority, the Soviet forces suffered another crushing defeat. The losses were catastrophic and Stalin’s troops again have to abandon Kharkov and reconstitute a new front line much more to the East. Among the reasons which can explain this brilliant German victory is that of the continued Luftwaffe support to ground forces. Moreover, Hitler -and it’s rare for him- at times authorizes his generals to withdraw their troops for tactical purposes, if only to outflank the enemy from the flanks and facilitate his encirclement. Another element which greatly weakens the Soviet command, in Kharkov as elsewhere throughout the war, is the continual presence of political commissars. Political commissars are officers who scrutinize the quality of work of military commanders in the field. Nikita Khrushchev, who will become after the war a leader of the USSR, is one of these famous commissars. At late May, several Soviet armies were surrounded and destroyed in Kharkov. The Germans and their allies advance in Ukraine and reach the important city from Rostov-on-Don. They’re also advancing in the Caucasus and heavy fighting has course in Sevastopol, Crimea at the end of June. Sevastopol finally fell on July 1, allowing Axis troops to have hands a little freer to begin Operation Fall Blau, the Blue Plan, which consists of a massive push to the southeast, towards the Caucasus and the capture of Stalingrad. The famous battle of Stalingrad is coming, but let’s momentarily leave the front Russia aside, because we must not neglect the situation in Africa and the Mediterranean. The start of the year 1942 in this theater of operations is marked from January 6 by another advance of British forces towards El-Agheila, in Libya. The city represents in a way the extreme advance of the Allied forces towards North Africa, as it constitutes a point of departure for the Axis forces towards Egypt. At late January, German Marshal Erwin Rommel went on the offensive, he takes over El-Agheila to the British and its soldiers are in Benghazi. The British, again, must retreat east. The front then seemed to stabilize in February and the Italo-Germans soldiers are again in Gazala, a little west of Tobruk. Can you guess? Yes! The island of Malta is bombed again! And it continues! The Allies are desperately trying to resupply the island and provide it with the fighters whose it needs so much to repel the incessant assaults of the Luftwaffe. The first six months of 1942 are critical in Malta: food, ammunition, gasoline and planes are missing. Recall that possession of the island is absolutely vital for anyone is at war in North Africa and needs supplies and air support on this front. Moreover, in a gesture of impatience, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill instructs his generals in Africa on 14 April to resume the offensive, if only to take the pressure off Malta. Did I say Malta is under pressure? For example, on April 20, the American ship USS Wasp delivers 47 British Spitfire fighters. Well, guess what! They’re almost all destroyed on the ground by the Luftwaffe! The situation on the island is downright unbearable. Glimmer of hope, but three weeks later, this same American aircraft carrier delivers another shipment of Spitfires to Malta, this time they aren’t destroyed on the ground and they make a severe fight against the Luftwaffe which is forced to abandon its bombardments of day against the island. Nevertheless, the Allies can consider themselves lucky since the Axis forces postpone indefinitely the invasion of Malta at the end of May. Marshal Rommel goes anyway of a new spring offensive in Gazala after a gap of almost three months. Axis forces attack across the entire front stretching from Tobruk to the north to Bir-Hakeim in the south, inland. Quickly, the Free French forces troops defending the southern end of the front at Bir-Hakeim are in difficulty. This is normal, because Rommel puts the pack there. He seeks to circumvent the southern flank of the front ally in order to take Tobruk from the rear and reopen an invasion route towards Egypt. At late May, early June, heavy fighting takes place along the front line from Gazala and Tobruk, to the south towards Bir-Hakeim. Rommel has difficulty to take Tobruk, in particular because the British have armored divisions and because of the presence of numerous minefields in the desert. Moreover, the improvement of the situation in Malta for the Allies complicates at the same time supplying the Axis forces in Africa. Nevertheless, on June 1, Rommel keeps up the pressure and manages to bypass part of the British front to the east. A few days later, the British, who were threatened with encirclement, attempted a counter-offensive which failed due to the terrible losses of armor suffered in minefields and against the German anti-tank guns. For example, on June 5, one of the British armored brigades alone lost 50 of its 70 tanks! The British and their allies then considered another retreat to Egypt. On June 9, Rommel renews the offensive against the Free French at Bir-Hakeim, which is literally a thorn in the foot of the Axis forces advance to the east. Despite everything, the situation of the Allies in North Africa became critical in mid-June, although the supply situation in Malta is improving a little bit, Rommel is moving forward quick. For his part, Churchill insisted that Tobruk is held at all costs, while military logic dictates that they must evacuate what remains of the armies to Egypt while there’s yet time. Unsurprisingly, the city of Tobruk is once again placed under siege, although a part of the British troops in the city manages to escape to Egypt. The city finally fell on June 21. Axis forces capture about 35,000 prisoners. It’s a great victory which deals a heavy blow to the morale of the Allies, the way to Egypt seems open again. For their part, the Allies retreated and had to imperative to create a new front line. This is fixed in a small locality whose name will soon become emblematic of the war in Africa: El-Alamein. I’ll come back to it. In the meantime, we’re going back to Asia! We left this front at Midway where, remember, the Americans have just stopped the Japanese advance in the Pacific. “Stop” is a big word. In the facts, the Allies can hardly claim to regain control of the initiative, i.e., the strategic agenda because the Japanese continue their attacks somewhere else. We’re on July 3, 1942. I ask you to remember a name which, like El-Alamein in Africa, like Stalingrad in Russia, will become emblematic of the savagery of war in the Pacific jungle: Guadalcanal. Wait! You’re going to tell me that Guadalcanal is probably another Pacific island just big enough to house a family two adults, two children and a dog? Well, almost! With some 5,000 kms2, Guadalcanal is an island that is still very larger than Midway, it’s the largest island in the Solomon Islands, bordered to the southwest by the Coral Sea which lies between these islands and Australia. On July 3, therefore, the Japanese controlled the western part of Guadalcanal and they pursued their advance into New Guinea, where the eventual capture of Port Moresby in the southeastern part of this island, combined with the control of Guadalcanal, would constitute an excellent starting point for the conquest of Australia. Naturally, on the side of the Allies, this must be prevented! On August 7, American soldiers, mostly from the Marine Corps, landed in force at Guadalcanal, in what appears as a first step in the terrestrial reconquest of the Japanese possessions in the Pacific. And there, hold on tight, I tell you, that go hard! The war in the Pacific has this particularity that they often fight in the jungle. This normally constitutes an already hostile environment: it’s hot, it’s extremely humid, mosquitoes and vermin are everywhere. What’s more, the Americans who land at Guadalcanal face an enemy who isn’t only is aggressive, but which, generally, simply doesn’t capitulate. Japanese soldiers people have a notion of honor and sacrifice that in no way authorizes defeat or withdrawal from the enemy, let alone capitulation. But, contrary to popular belief, Japanese soldiers in 1942 weren’t much more familiar than the Allies to fight in the jungle, before 1941, the Japanese experience of war was limited to the physical environment from mainland China, where the jungle is much rarer. That said, the Americans are reinforcing Guadalcanal, just as the Australians are doing the same in New Guinea from August. Americans in Guadalcanal build an airfield in one of the few flat parts of the island, the land is called Henderson Field. Hold it, because Henderson Field is becoming a true obsession for the Japanese, its capture would allow them to extend the radius of their air attacks against Australia, as well as against Allies naval air units in the Southeast Pacific. On August 21, heavy fighting for his capture took place, the Japanese soldiers go there from several charges, bayonets to the guns and in close ranks. These are violent, wild charges and better known as banzai, these attacks are suicidal and it’s the aim. Henderson Field and the nearby Tenaru and Matanikau rivers are subject to such assaults in late August and through much of the fall of 1942. Meanwhile, in New Guinea, the Japanese attack Port Moresby. The Australian resistance overcomes these assaults and the Japanese finally give up this objective. The battle of Milne Bay, near Port Moresby, was among the earliest land victories of the Allies in the Pacific. But the Japanese are keeping up the pressure, especially at Guadalcanlal. From September 12 to 14, they launch a second offensive with the aim of capturing ridges that overlook Henderson Field. Banzai charges mostly unfold at night and they increase the pressure on the Americans who are defending the perimeter from the landing strip. On September 14, the Japanese temporarily retreated to replenish their ranks. Indeed, because they’are renewing their offensive, this time on September 23. The goal? Still Henderson Field, to which are added various attempts to take the ridges around the airport. During the first two weeks of October, the Japanese attack again – Come on, I’ll let you guess! Eh yes! Henderson Field!- But the Americans resist! In fact, after this other failure, the Japanese now give up new offensives against Henderson Field. At early November, they began a gradual withdrawal towards the west of Guadalcanal. The beginning of November was therefore marked by a series of American counter-attacks aimed at expelling the Japanese from the island. Henderson Field eventually cleared of the enemy presence, but the difficulty now lies in tracking down the Japanese scattered in the jungle. During the months of November and December, the Americans are busy fighting an enemy buried in the jungle, in bunkers, not to mention the difficult surrounding conditions. At the end of December, the Japanese were about to abandon Guadalcanal and we can reasonably think that the threat of an invasion of Australia is momentarily ruled out. So that’s it for the war in the Pacific in 1942. Now I’m taking you back to Russia, where the last months of the year see an intensity and savagery of the battles still unmatched. There too, it brews! Although the northern part of the front resists still under the siege of Leningrad, and the center front sees the release of the capital Moscow, the situation in the southern part of the front located at the crossroads of Stalingrad and the Caucasus worries the Soviet command. The progress of the Axis forces in this sector since the fall of Kharkov has been relatively good. At late July- early August, the Red Army retreated to settle behind the Don River. The important industrial city of Stalingrad becomes a “natural” objective, whose capture would affect the Soviet war economy, this capture would also carry a blow to the prestige and morale of the army and the population -after all, the city is named after Stalin-, his capture would also secure a passage to the Caucasus. In short, the Axis forces have an objective in mind, whose name becomes emblematic the savagery of the fighting on the Eastern Front, and in particular the fighting in the middle urban: Stalingrad! The progress towards this strategic city at early August 1942 seems well unfold for the Germans and their Italian, Hungarian and Romanian allies. However, the resistance becomes more lively as they approaches the suburbs. From the outset, a bit like in Leningrad, civilians, and even children, were conscripted in the Red Army. Ten days after the start of the fighting, Stalingrad was surrounded, at least the part of the city located west of the Volga River. The Germans advance in the city. The Soviets retreat, eventually stand with their backs to the Volga wall. They desperately resist, but above all try to convey reinforcements in the city. The catch is that the only way to do this is to place troops on barges crossing the Volga River. The problem? As you can imagine, these barges and other maritime craft are subject to bombardments and grapeshot from Luftwaffe planes. Despite heavy losses suffered, some reinforcements arrive in the city. The extent of Soviet resistance, combined with the deterioration of meteorological conditions, forced the Germans to take a break in mid-October. The battle has last more than a month already and the city has still not fallen. On the contrary, the arrival of reinforcements, whose crossing of the Volga becomes easier as the river freezes, allows the Red Army to go there for a first counter-offensive on November 12, two months after the start of the battle. They fight in the streets, in the alleys, in the industrial buildings, in the grain silos, in apartment buildings! At times, the Germans control such floor of a building, while the Soviets own another floor and vice versa. They fight in schools, in daycares, even in the sewers. Everywhere! It’s of course for the Soviets to raise the siege of the city. The Marshall Joukov, who directs the defense of the city, then launches Operation Uranus which consists not only to liberate the city proper, but to encircle the Axis forces who are there. At the end of November, the German general staff and the soldiers in the city make the disturbing observation that the city is now surrounded and that the Soviet siege is tightening. Of course, supplies no longer enter, ammunition and food are lacking, as well as medical equipment. On November 22, General von Paulus, who commanded the German Sixth Army, pinned down in Stalingrad, informs Hitler that his 300,000 men are completely surrounded. Is it catastrophic? In principle yes, but if the Luftwaffe manages to get supplies, because an airstrip is still available, and a clearing operation is attempted, then von Paulus’ men could contribute to their own extirpation. One of the problems is that, precisely, the Luftwaffe has more and more difficulties to fulfill the missions and mandates assigned to it. The Battle of Britain, that of Malta, the defense of the Reich against Allied bombing and the important needs of the Russian front mean that resources are stretched to the limit. Worse still, and suddenly returning to his old habits, Hitler formally forbade General von Paulus to capitulate to the enemy. On November 25, the encirclement of Stalingrad stabilized, i.e., it became more efficient, more airtight. Again, Hitler reiterates his prohibition to capitulate. But the Germans must try all for all. From December 12 to 23, the general staff triggers Operation Winter Storm, whose goal is to break through the encirclement Stalingrad Soviet. All Axis resources in the game south of the Russian front are put to use, despite the clear numerical superiority of the Soviets on the order of 3 to 1. On the first day of the offensive, the situation looked promising, as the Soviets retreated and barely manage to hold the siege, but their resistance strengthens once the shock had been absorbed and faced with the virtual inaction of the German Sixth Army in Stalingrad which is too weak and busy holding its own positions. If, in Berlin, they keep the hope of helping the Sixth Army in Stalingrad, the reality of the soldiers on the ground is hopeless. Moreover, German forces present in the Caucasus began to withdraw towards the west, particularly to in turn avoid being trapped on the peninsula. As for Stalingrad, the city has not yet been captured by the Soviets, this is only a matter of time. But remember this: the trap is indeed closed! And what about the situation in the Mediterranean and Africa in the second half of 1942? Can Axis forces in Egypt hope to capture Alexandria and, who knows, go back to the Soviet Caucasus? In fact, when the Germans in Russia beat the Soviets in Kharkov in the summer of 1942, Rommel’s troops in Africa are in Marsa Matruh, Egypt, 225 kilometers west of Alexandria. In just a few days, they advance to stop at El-Alamein, a locality about 100 kms from Alexandria, due to lack of supplies due to exhaustion. Rommel has no choice but to take a break, a break the Allies seek to exploit. On July 26, they launched the first battle of El-Alamein which, unfortunately for them, is a failure, a failure which cost them dearly in armored vehicles, but which at least the merit of stabilizing the front. Rommel isn’t in a position to go further for the reasons mentioned above, But that’s not all, the German general is aware that since the entry in the war of the USA, the risks that the Allies send more reinforcements on his African front are very real. Indeed, from August 5, American high command is planning Operation Torch, the objective of which is to land troops in North Africa by the west of the continent. I’ll come back to it. In the meantime, Rommel must settle the Egyptian file as quickly as possible. On August 10, he tries a new operation to take El-Alamein. Failure. Three weeks later, he attacks south of El-Alamein, at Alam-el-Halfah. Again, failure. Rommel fails to bend the Allies in Egypt before the arrival of the Americans in Africa. Moreover, the air superiority of the Allies is increasingly make felt as Luftwaffe pressure on Malta gradually eased. The battle raging around El-Alamein in early September 1942 allowed the new British commander, General Bernard Montgomery to stabilize the front despite serious tank losses. Moreover, the British commander tried to use new tactics to give their blinds a new support role to the infantry instead of exposing them unnecessarily head first in the middle of the desert and minefields. Faced with Montgomery, Rommel understands that he has just lost the initiative, control of strategic agenda no longer belongs to him. Knowing that Americans soon arrive in Africa, Montgomery takes his time to reconstruct his front. The recovery of El-Alamein may wait for some time. A rumor also circulates that Rommel would no longer be present in Africa. In effect, we learned on September 23 that he was repatriated to Germany to follow medical treatments. So, tThe Axis forces lose a very high quality leader and adored by his men. On the other hand, on October 22, on the West African coast, an American general named Mark Clark, the general’s deputy and future president of the USA, Dwight Eisenhower, secretly landed in Algeria to discuss with French officers of the Vichy regime, as well as to start talks with the local resistance. Clark sets out to find out how well Vichy’s faltering forces will hold up to an American landing in force on the North-West African coasts and what type support can provide local resistance. Clark receives certain guarantees to the effect that the Vichy army in Africa will offer little or no resistance. One thing is certain, it’s now obvious that the siege is tightening on the forces of the Axis in North Africa. The American landing on the west coast is scheduled for soon, as Montgomery prepares to move into Egypt. Thus began the second great battle of El-Alamein on October 23, 1942. It was a deluge of fire beating down on the Axis positions, the Allies artillery pounded incessantly while the infantry advances and can also count on cannon fire naval units along the coast. The Allies are going for broke. They must once and for all expel the Axis forces from Egypt, permanently clear the Suez Canal as well as the Near and Middle East. Nearly 200,000 soldiers attack, supported by 1,000 tanks and 750 aircraft against just over 100,000 Italian-German soldiers. The next day, October 24, convoys left the USA and England in the direction of North Africa, in what becomes the start of Operation Torch. The same year, the Battle of El-Alamein continued, despite heavy losses in shielded. And believe it or not, Rommel, who is in bad shape as we know, returns urgently to Africa to regain his command! “Too little too late”, you’ll tell me: the Axis front at El-Alamein is breached. Rommel’s arrival only delays the inevitable, which is to order a general retreat at the beginning of November. A few days after the official end of the second battle of El-Alamein, the operation Torch was carried out on November 8, 1942. Allied forces landed on the coasts of Morocco and Algeria then under Vichy control. The local pro-allied resistance also came into action and attacked the headquarters in particular. of Vichy, thus helping to facilitate the Allied landing. Two days later, on November 10, the Allies captured the city of Oran and many French naval units located in the port are sunk. The Allies also land troops near the border with Tunisia, the numerous French units on the spot offered practically no resistance and joined mainly the Allied camp. In Egypt, once the front of El-Alamein pierced, Montgomery continued the advance westward and entered Libya towards November 10. Tobruk was definitively liberated on the 13th, Benghazi on the 20th, which led Churchill to utter another of his famous quotes: « This isn’t the end. It’s not even the beginning of the end. But it’s, perhaps, the end of the beginning. » In the end, the Axis forces beat in full retreat, still towards the west, to Tunisia. Unsurprisingly, at the beginning of December, we witness an intensification fighting in this country which had hitherto been relatively spared. As in Stalingrad at the same time, the Axis forces are caught in a vice, a vice certainly much wider, but which narrows in the west as in the east to converge to Tunisia. In mid-December, Rommel abandoned his traditional starting point of El-Agheila, where he used to start his African campaigns since the spring of 1941. The order is given to the Axis forces to move to Tripoli. In doing so, the German general intends to gain time to establish a new front on a position nicknamed the Mareth Line, in the south of Tunisia, not far from the border with Libya. But Rommel knows only too well that he and his soldiers risk being trapped in Tunisia. Why? For the simple reason that on the “western” front of Africa, the Allies, which are mainly composed of American soldiers, rush quickly towards Tunis, the capital. While on the “eastern” front, the Allies, essentially troops of the British Empire veterans of El-Alamein, quickly converge on Tripoli and the border Tunisian. This is the situation in Africa as Christmas arrives. And what about the situation on the “Western” front, i.e., in West Europe? Is there still something going on in this theater of operations in 1942 since the fall of France two years earlier? Well, yes! On March 28, British commandos launched the very audacious and suicidal operation Truck against the French port of Saint-Nazaire. About 600 men take part in the operation and they manage to neutralize the port facilities for the rest of the war from the city. Almost all participants are killed, wounded or captured in an operation which consists of stuffing explosives into a freighter, the HMS Campbeltown, then driving it into the port until it all explodes! Naturally, a suicidal operation by sort has a nevertheless noble, if not rational objective, namely the neutralization French ports overlooking the Atlantic, ports that serve as bases for Germans submarines. What’s more, this type of operation constrains the German occupiers in France to remain alert, to remain on their guard, because the Allies don’t give up the idea that one day, even a distant one, they’ll return to fight in France to free her. And somewhat in this light, the military event that draws attention to the western front in 1942 is definitely the raid against the port city French from Dieppe, in Normandy, on August 19. On this date, the Allies launched Operation Jubilee, which consisted of raiding few hours against the city, capture it, test its defenses and, above all, assess the technical feasibility of a larger scale landing of troops on the continent. More generally, it’s also a question of raising the morale of the Allies, of restoring a certain hope to the French, and to calm Stalin’s grumbling who demanded, not without reason, the opening of a second front in the west. The mission is essentially entrusted to the Canadian soldiers, whose ground forces haven’t been tested since the outbreak of hostilities. It’s expected that about 5,000 Canadian infantry supported by about 1,000 British commandos landed on Dieppe beach on August 19. And this first offensive action of the Canadians is a real fiasco! At least 900 of they’re killed on the beach, 2,000 are taken prisoner and only a handful manage to go to England. The failure of the Dieppe raid can generally be explained by an allocation of too few means and resources compared to to far too ambitious goals. Ground troops are left to fend for themselves, naval support is lacking, and the Royal Air Force is taught a lesson by the Luftwaffe that day. The tanks are literally bogged down on the pebble beach and the infantry must advance under the lethal fire of cannons, mortars and machine guns that allow them surround it from two cliffs that converge on the beach. Despite all, it’s possible to draw valuable lessons from the Dieppe raid, these lessons -it’s hoped- should be used to improve amphibious assault techniques and, who knows, maybe one day see the possibility of a major landing in France. In another vein, in the chapter of the naval air war, the year 1942 is also rich in twists and turns, like ground operations. But first, unsurprisingly, the island of Malta continues to be regularly bombarded. Moreover, at the beginning of January, it’s estimated that it’s more often bombarded than London! Naturally, the Allies don’t let them to do that. Their aerial bombardments against the industrial potential of the Axis countries intensify. For example, on March 13, a Royal Air Force raid on Essen severely damaged the city, just like another attack on Lübeck where, in the latter case, no less 30% of the city is completely destroyed much to Hitler’s chagrin. In April and May, the Luftwaffe in Europe went on further raids against the British Isles in response to the escalating attacks on Germany. However, the effects are much lower than during the 1940 blitz. It was especially in the spring and summer of 1942 that the Allies really increased the rate of the bombardments against Germany. We then undertake a type of bombardment which we can call “the 1,000”, i.e., not far from 1,000 bombers are deployed at the same time for the same mission! Yes, 1000! One of the first attacks of this series of “1,000” takes place on May 30 against Cologne where, to be more precise, 850 RAF bombers attack the town. Early June, the city of Bremen also suffers a raid of the « 1000 ». Another new fact: on July 4, a first bombardment carried out by American aircraft takes place against Germany, while the pace of raids by the British intensifies. Another new fact? Towards the end of July, the Allied bombers were increasingly equipped with incendiary bombs, i.e., bombs whose purpose is neither more nor less than to cause infernos which not only must deal a blow against the industrial installations, but which reach civilian populations without too much difficulty. From a strategic perspective, in October, the USA and Great Britain agree on a risk-sharing bombing policy. For example, it’s agreed that American bombers now carry out daytime raids, while their British counterparts attack at night. Whether conducted by day or by night, bombing missions include their equivalent shares of risk. During the day, the targets are easier to see, of course, but bombers are more exposed to the accuracy of enemy fighter fire and anti-aircraft batteries. The night? Well the targets are obviously harder to spot, but the effect of enemy fighters decreases somewhat, although the effectiveness of anti-aircraft artillery barrages isn’t changed too much. On the high seas, the year 1942 obviously saw an intensification of clashes, if only by the opening of a new and immense front in the Pacific Ocean, but in the Atlantic the Allies again experienced days of misery. With the entry into the war of the USA, the German submarines no longer hesitate to attack any cargo ship in US territorial waters. The Allies again seem to have difficulty coordinating anti-submarine warfare well, in particular because we have problems in the allocation of resources given the extent from the front and the training of marines is done quickly given the urgency of the situation. Unsurprisingly, Allied losses increase and territorial waters once considered « safe » are now part of areas at risk of attack. For example, the St. Lawrence estuary, Canada, became from 1942 a so-called “dangerous” zone. This battle of the St. Lawrence didn’t officially end until November 1944. Many supply cargo ships bound for Europe are sunk by submarines which sometimes come dangerously close to the Canadian coast. It was precisely these terrible losses in naval convoys that compelled the Allies improve their strategies and tactics. It ends up giving some results, but the toll of losses remained very heavy in the fall. In the Mediterranean, Allied convoys continue to be sunk. For example, around Malta, two supply convoys are literally pulverized by the Luftwaffe on July 3 and August 13, but the supply of the island resumes again in the fall. Still in the Mediterranean, in the context of the landing of the Allied forces in North Africa, no less than 77 units of the French navy were scuttled on November 27, mainly in the ports of the south of France. The objective is to prevent these ships from falling into the hands of the Germans who come to invade the free zone a few days before. Moreover, the scuttling of the French fleet is partly the consequence of the defection of Admiral François Darlan, who was then the highest French officer in Africa, he signs an armistice with the Allies, but he was assassinated in Algiers on December 24, 1942. In the Pacific, the naval war also raged in 1942. To name but a few cases, mention the Battle of Salvo Island in Guadalcanal on July 3. The Allies suffered a defeat with more than 1,000 marines killed. However, the latter won a partial victory on October 11 and 12 at the battle from Cape Esperance to the Solomon Islands, opposite the northern tip of Guadalcanal. Americans suffer fewer losses there, but the Japanese manage to land troops in one of their last attempts to control this strategic island. Japanese and US navies clash again in late October and mid-November around Guadalcanal. The Japanese still want to strengthen the island, keep the pressure on Henderson Field, but the scale of their losses, which are more difficult to replace, indicates that in the short and medium terms, the Americans regain control of the situation. Now I want to take a moment to rush through some events in relation on the home front, as well as the situation on the diplomatic front in 1942. First, the situation of the Jews – we don’t doubt– is far from improving. For example, on January 15, those who live in the Lodz ghetto in Poland are deported to a concentration camp. Some days later, on the 20th, the infamous secret conference takes place in Berlin from Wannsee. The head of the Reich Central Security Office, Reinhard Heydrich and the Nazis of different departments, ministries and organizations officially decide to the « Final Solution » to the so-called « Jewish problem », a solution that initially consists of a relocation to Poland of the deported Jews and then to their outright extermination. Do the Jews let them do it so easily? Well no! Despite the massacres perpetrated on a daily basis, some of them resist. This is particularly the case of the United Organization of Partisans, the FPO, under its Polish acronym. Founded in January 1942, the FPO consists of a group of Jewish resistance fighters from the ghetto of Vilnius, Lithuania. It becomes the first Jewish resistance organization of its kind, with a motto that is clear, to say the least: refusing to « let oneself be led by the Nazis as sheep to the slaughterhouse”. And in this same perspective of internment of populations, this time in the USA, in February, the US government considers the idea of ​​​​imprisoning Japanese citizens, an idea that takes effect the same month with the detention of at least 120,000 citizens of Japanese descent. Back in Europe, the one who organizes the Final Solution, and possible dolphin of Hitler, Reinhard Heydrich, is victim of an attack by Czechoslovak commandos in Prague on May 27. He died a few days later and his death caused strong reprisals against the civilian population. And don’t believe that the death of Heydrich suddenly put a stop to the Final Solution, on the contrary, it’s accelerating and rumors circulate to the effect that gas would be used in the concentration camps to kill the Jews; that’s what its saids… Meanwhile, the deportations continue. This is particularly the case in France where, the July 16, about 13,000 French Jews are victims of the Vel’d’Hiv roundup to possibly be deported to Auschwitz thanks to the collaboration of the Vichy regime. Moreover, this French collaboration to the Nazi regime doesn’t only include the deportation of the country’s Jews, under the Petainist regime. in September, the Compulsory Labor Service, the STO, was created, which sends and deports in Germany hundreds of thousands of workers who feed the workforce of the Reich factories. The year 1942 was also marked by many technological advances. In addition to the progress recorded in terms of more traditional weapons, we’re witnessing to a small revolution in weapons of mass destruction. For example, June 18 marks the official start of the Manhattan Project in the USA, the project is intended to be a more scientific and organized approach to producing the first atomic weapons. A first nuclear reactor was installed at the end of the year by a team from the University of Chicago as part of the Manhattan Project. For their part, the Germans aren’t left out. On October 3, it’s witnessing a first successful flight of a missile, the A4. It’s said that the missile, if it becomes operational, would have a range of at least 150 kms, which would be enough to hit England from the mainland. And to conclude, in the final stretch of this episode, I remind you of certain events beacons of the year 1942 on what is commonly called the diplomatic front. First, on January 1, the United Nations Declaration was signed in Washington by 26 signatory countries which undertake to continue the war against the forces of the Axis. This statement originates from the Atlantic Charter which was signed in 1941 and it’ll also become the basis of the founding of the United Nations in June 1945. On April 29, Hitler summons Mussolini and senior Italian leaders to a conference being held in Salzburg, Austria. Hitler asks his partner more reinforcements from the Axis for the bogged down military campaign in Russia, at the same time, Hitler seeks to force Mussolini to align his strategy due the many military setbacks of the Italian armies since the start of hostilities. Feeling that the tide is gradually turning in favor of the Allies, on May 21, in London, Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov meets Churchill. The Soviet outlines to the British leader the demands of his country, in particular territorial demands relatively greedy for the post-war period. Without being able to promise everything, Churchill nevertheless accepted, on May 26, to sign a treaty with the USSR in which Great Britain undertakes not to conclude a separate peace with the Axis, but the British Prime Minister is unable to promise leader Stalin the definitive opening of a second front in the West in 1942. As we can see, nothing is definitively decided when 1942 ends, Axis forces still occupy large portions of territory in Europe and in Asia despite significant declines in Africa. These are always a serious threat to the seas. We also realize that the world has been at war for more than three years already. It’s long! And it’s far from over. War is raging on all continents. She seems, I say « she seems », to have reached a paroxysm of violence and horror. Are there any signs that lead us to believe that the war may end early or late? Maybe, but you have to have a good dose of optimism and be an attentive observer. On the side of France, to begin with, the release isn’t scheduled for tomorrow morning. The Bitter Failure of Anglo-Canadian Forces during the Dieppe raid reminds us that a possible amphibious operation in the west Europe needs to be better planned and better resourced. In Russia, it’s now accepted that the Red Army has managed, not without difficulty, to definitively halt the advance of the German armies and their allies. Sign encouraging for the Soviets: the Battle of Stalingrad is over. The victory is won on this part of the forehead. In the Pacific theater of operations, there too, one can reasonably think that the Japanese will not go further. The battles of Midway and Guadalcanal mark the extreme advances of the Japanese troops. The Allies are now in a logic of reconquering lost territories, regaining control of the strategic agenda. In Africa, nothing is going well for the Axis forces. These beat clearly in retreat since their defeat at El-Alamein, Egypt. They retreat to Tunisia where they must now face the allied forces arriving both from Egypt and Algeria. At sea, especially in the Atlantic Ocean, the convoy situation deteriorates for the Allies. The German U-Boats are making ravages. The Allies are trying by all means to improve the protection of their convoys, but air cover is poor and convoys are often left behind, without adequate protection. In the air, the situation remains uncertain. The Japanese and German air forces constitute always serious threats. Its notes in Europe that the rate of Anglo-American bombardments against the Axis military industry is growing. The bombings become almost daily. We’re now in 1943. Come on! The war continues! We go back! Let’s take a trip to Russia first. Clearly, things are heating up there at the start of 1943. From the month of January, we notice that the German forces in the Caucasus begin to evacuate the area, if only to avoid the same fate than their counterparts stuck in Stalingrad. The beginning of the year is also marked by the execution of a series of offensives of the Red Army on several hot spots on the Eastern Front. For example, on January 18, Soviet troops crossing the frozen Lake Ladoga make a brief junction with the defenders of Leningrad still under the blow of a siege which lasts since 1941! But it’s also obvious that the part south of the Eastern Front is a priority for the Soviet command. Stalingrad and the Caucasus region must absolutely be liberated and the Soviets are putting their all into it. On January 21, they captured the last airstrip available in Stalingrad, from now on, the supply of the 6th German army becomes impossible. It’s the shot thanks for his soldiers, they’re out of ammunition, food and equipment medical. It’s also terribly cold. For his part, Hitler demanded that the fight continues. He promotes General von Paulus, the commander of the Sixth Army, to the rank of marshal in order to raise the morale of the army and put pressure on the defenders because, in principle, no « marshal » in the history of the German army capitulated to the enemy! But it’s a waste of time. In the last week of January, the Soviets launched a final assault on Stalingrad. The German soldiers can’t take it anymore. The Marshall von Paulus and his staff officially capitulate on January 31 and all the troops did the same a few days later, on February 2. The defeat is cruel both for the morale of the army and for that of the German people, who, perhaps curiously, is quickly informed by the government of the new of the disaster. At least 300,000 German soldiers are lost and of this number a few dozen thousands are taken prisoner. German propaganda seeks to exploit the defeat at Stalingrad as a sign, even a symbol of the sacrifice of the nation in its struggle against Bolshevism. And by the way, the sacrifices for this ideal continue, so to speak, because the Soviets maintain their offensive momentum. On February 14, they attack and liberate the strategic city of Rostov-on-Don. Two days later, they temporarily resume Kharkov, Ukraine, but German resistance in the city is fierce. The city of Kharkov has changed hands several times since 1941. At late February and early March 1943, the Germans managed to retake the city, with difficulties. We see in March to violent urban fights where the Germans end up having the upper hand. The victory of Kharkov constitutes, one suspects it, only one small consolation after the Stalingrad debacle. Now let’s go for a ride in the Pacific! As you now know, this theater of operations is vast. The front is huge. Imagine a circle whose circumference and the diameter are several tens of thousands of kilometers. This circumference starts from the Aleutian Islands in the Alaska region, then descends to Midway and the Hawaiian Islands, branches off to the Southeast Pacific Islands for finish by covering Burma and China. Basically, we fight inside this immense circle! And it seems that at early January 1943 the priority of the Allies is again the defense of the front of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. American forces and Australians are advancing in eastern New Guinea, but the Japanese intend to contest this advance. On January 22, there’s fighting in the region of Buna-Gona, New Guinea, in the jungle. The Allies regain the upper hand, but the Battle conditions are appalling. It’s raining, but it’s raining in New Guinea, there’s no way! The amount of daily showers can sometimes reach 200mm of water, so we must naturally add a high level of humidity which almost never drops below 80%. Ah yes, I forgot, there is also malaria! What’s more, in the neighboring islands further east, particularly in the Solomons, the Japanese resistance continues. The situation isn’t quite settled in Guadalcanal, but the Japanese finally evacuate the island on January 30 after several months of terrible clashes. At the western end of the circle, in Burma, British special troops nicknamed the Chindits, began commando operations against the Japanese occupier in February. These operations last until the end of the hostilities with more or less intensive periods of sabotage of lines of communication and supplying the enemy. These operations are part of a strategic perspective broader reconquest of Burma, but also the re-establishment of the link with China. In the northern part of the circle, in the Aleutian Islands, American soldiers land in the island of Attu on May 11. This is a two-day operation involving 15,000 soldiers who will face about 3,000 Japanese fighters. Casually, the Japanese have occupied this seemingly insignificant island since 1942, and they defend it with the energy of despair. Americans must push back banzai charges in an environment of extreme cold, in the snow and in the mids of a Mountain. Almost all Japanese soldiers are killed or injured in these suicidal assaults. And speaking of suicide, the few survivors kill themselves, if only to avoid the dishonor of falling alive into the hands of of the enemy. Imagine. In Attu, of the 3,000 Japanese fighters present on the island, barely thirty are taken prisoner! Note in this context the variety of environments and climates in which the belligerents of the Pacific front clash. According to the places, they fight in mid-of the jungle or in the snow! This particularity makes it possible to take the measure, once again, the immensity of this theater of operations. Still, the Allies maintain the pace of the offensives. On June 21, a multi-month operation dubbed Cartwheel, it consists first of a landing of the American Marines in New Georgia, an island in the Solomons located northwest of Guadalcanal. The ultimate goal of Operation Cartwheel is to take the town of Rabaul located on the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Captured by the Japanese in early 1942, Rabaul is an important base of operations in the Southeast Pacific. Its possession notably allows the Japanese to launch offensives in the Solomon Islands and somehow represents a sword of Damocles over Australia. The Allies, in order to recapture Rabaul, intend to go there gradually. We’re talking here about an offensive strategy « by leap », i.e., to attack small islands more or less well defended to ensure control before go after strongholds and “bigger fish” like Rabaul. Don’t worry, I’ll come back to it. Now let’s move to the front from Africa. Is the file settled, in 1943? Well, no! Of course, the German soldiers and their Italian allies are retreating, but they have not said their last word. Following their victory at El-Alamein in the fall of 1942, British forces continue their offensive push towards the west. On January 15, they approach Tripoli, the capital of Libya which finally falls the next week, on the 23rd. Marshal Rommel doesn’t put much energy into defending Tripoli, because he knows very well that with the thrust of the Allies arriving from the west, the final resistance in Africa will take place around Tunis, the capital of Tunisia. But he can’t avoid having to fight on two fronts, one to the west and the other in the southeast of Tunisia, not far from the border with Libya. On February 2, the Axis forces settled on a defensive line nicknamed the Line Mareth, in southeastern Tunisia. By doing so, Libya is now considered fully liberated and the British troops enter Tunisia to establish contact with the enemy on the Mareth Line. Clearly, imagine the current territory of Tunisia and you have a good idea of what the North African front may represent, particularly at the beginning of 1943. Finally, it’s Tunisia! So, Rommel has before him the British southeast of the country, then the Americans in the west. He knows the British well for having fought them constantly since 1941. But what about this new American enemy? The German marshal is aware that the American soldiers, since their landing in Africa as part of Operation Torch in the fall of 1942, didn’t actually been battle tested. With all due respect, these aren’t the veterans of El-Alamein! That said, Rommel aggressively attacked the Americans on February 13. He captures the localities of Sidi Bouzi and Gafsa in the center of the country, always with the aim of countering the American advance from the west. Violent fighting takes place in the Kasserine pass where these localities are. American soldiers are literally being taught a lesson in their inexperience with the fight against the Germans. Overall, the defeat of American soldiers in the Kasserine pass temporarily allows Rommel to form a front line more or less continuous between the capital Tunis in the north, Kasserine in the center and the Line Mareth southeast of Tunisia. Of course, American soldiers are recovering from the shock, gain some experience and can eventually resume the offensive. In fact, as early as February 26, Rommel and his soldiers were forced into a gradual retreat of the Mareth Line to the north. I say « gradual » because not only was the German withdrawal carried out in good order, but Rommel counter-attacked on March 6 in the Medenine region, a few kilometers to the southeast of the Mareth Line. This is the last offensive that the German Marshal personally leads in Africa, he suffered a defeat against the British, insofar as it fails perfectly to delay or dislocate an upcoming offensive against the Mareth Line. After this battle, Rommel is repatriated in Germany while it’s still possible. I say that because, a bit as we have seen at Stalingrad, the Axis forces are gradually trapped in a vice that tightens to converge towards Tunis. On March 20, British troops under General Montgomery make a first breakthrough of the Mareth Line. A few days later, on the 23rd, the Americans took their revenge on Kasserine by defeating the Germans at the battle of El-Guettar, near Gafsa, in central Tunisia. On the same day, the British to the south widened their breakthrough of the Mareth Line, so the entire Axis front it’s threatened with rupture. The retreat of Italian-German soldiers towards northern Tunisia is accelerating, while as the siege tightens again. On April 7, American and British soldiers meet in Gafsa, in the center of the country. The important coastal city of Sfax falls and the Axis front in the southern part of Tunisia completely cracks. It’s now May 1, 1943. The Allies in Tunisia are advancing rapidly towards Tunis and the resistance becomes less and less strong. Completely isolated and surrounded, the Tunisian capital falls a few days later into the hands of the British, while that the Americans capture another important city: Bizerte. On May 13, hold on tight, no less than 250,000 Italian and German soldiers capitulated. The war in Africa is over! This is the first continent that we can now consider as entirely free from the presence of the Axis. Unsurprisingly, and even if it was predictable, the blow was taken hard in Berlin and in Rome, especially since it is difficult to recover from the Stalingrad disaster. Moreover, the Allied forces present in Africa don’t stop there, they constitute the army designated for a possible landing somewhere in southern Europe, to prolong hostilities in the Mediterranean and to hold the Axis occupied on this part of the front. The German and Italian generals are certain of this and they must prepare accordingly. Sicily and mainland Italy will likely be the next battlegrounds. In other words, the Allies decide on the crossing of the Mediterranean with as starting bases the positions recently conquered in Tunisia and, of course, the island of Malta which is finally experiencing respite! I’ll come back! On the air front –and we can imagine it– the intensity of the clashes only increases. Clearly, the Allies are increasingly seeking to aim the industrial heartland of Nazi Germany. For example, on February 5, 1943, the city of Essen is bombed, marking the beginning of a long bombing campaign daily life which lasts at least four months in the Ruhr Valley, an important industrial center. For its part, the Japanese empire is also beginning to bear the brunt of air attacks of the Allies, in particular those of American aircraft. It’s getting riskier for the Japanese to venture into the high seas without air cover minimum. For example, March 2 begins a battle in the Bismarck Islands northeast of New Guinea. Naval air forces Americans and Australians attack a Japanese convoy of eight troop transports escorted by eight destroyers trying to supply the city of Lae, New Guinea. Well, believe it or not, the Japanese are sinking all of their transport of troops, as well as half of their destroyers! Why? Say one of the reasons for this success of the Allies lies in the decryption of communications Japanese. Of the 7,000 soldiers supposed to land at Lae, New Guinea, barely 1,000 reach the coast not without difficulty, so that it becomes increasingly difficult for the Japanese to maneuver in the Pacific and thus control the strategic agenda. However, where things are not going so well for the Allies, still with regard to air warfare, is the situation in the Atlantic Ocean. The recurring problem remains the famous “black hole”, i.e., this zone in the center of the ocean which isnt served by adequate aerial coverage. Convoy losses remain heavies. And this problem partly finds its solution in August, a solution -to say the least- unusual, when Portugal authorizes the Allies to use the islands of the Azores as naval air bases. In doing so, they plug a good part of the “black hole”. Moreover, this involvement of Portugal –an officially neutral state with a fascist government– ​​is made possible by, so to speak, the reactivation of a Anglo-Portuguese treaty that still exists and dates from 1373! Still in the air, on May 16 and 17, 1943, the British went there for a very daring against German hydroelectric dams in the Ruhr Valley. So-called Dambuster Raids see 19 RAF bombers attack the dams Mohne and Edersee. The idea is, using special bombs bouncing on water, to literally drill holes in each of these dams to stop production of hydroelectricity that supply the industries of the region. Since dams are difficult to destroy with conventional bombs thrown at high altitude, and that the Germans installed protective anti-torpedo nets on rivers, the idea is then to use bouncing bombs launched horizontally at very low altitude, at water level. Like a ping-pong ball, the bomb leaps over the torpedo nets in the direction of the dam to pierce a specific point. This original method, to say the least, allows the Allies to temporarily neutralize barrages, but which end sooner or later by being repaired. But the technique has proven itself. In terms of naval warfare, the year 1943 saw no slowdown in operations. On the contrary, I’ld even say that the situation for the Allies, in the first six months of the year in the North Atlantic, is critical. The losses in supply ships recorded for the month of March alone are appalling. They blame the lack of escort ships, of course, but the problem mentioned above lack of air cover is clearly felt. Sign of hope, still in the spring of 1943, new models of specialized aircraft in anti-submarine warfare, and which have a longer range of action, are placed in service. The infamous ‘black hole’ is becoming increasingly clogged, increasing thus the level of safety of the ocean crossing. Naturally, the German submarine fleet is very well organized and it hits hard in spring. However, the losses they suffers are getting heavier and heavier. On May 24, the boss of German submarines, Admiral Karl Donitz, ordered the majority of its units to leave the Atlantic because of the unprecedented losses. For example, for the month of May 1943 alone, the Germans lost 43 U-Boats against only 34 Allied ships due to improved anti-submarine tactics. Besides, May 1943 was a turning point in the Battle of the Atlantic, a turning point which the Germans refer to as the « Black May ». Let’s also not forget that outside of the more traditional battlefields, there are also clashes of varying degrees of intensity in the territories occupied, what is commonly called the « home front ». For example, as I have often mentioned, many Jews don’t accept or no longer accept, to be guided towards the slaughterhouse. On April 19, we witness a real uprising of the Jews living in the Warsaw ghetto, Poland. The battle in the Polish capital lasts about a month. This insurrection constitutes a resistance against the attempts of the Germans to liquidate the ghetto and deport Jews to concentration camps on the eve Easter. About 1,000 Jewish fighters belonging to various resistance organizations are rising up. They fight with the means on board, with weapons seized from the Germans or having received only basic training. Faced with thousands of S.S. soldiers, the Jews knew from the start that the cause was hopeless. They’re fighting against a better armed and better trained occupier, but they’re fighting also against what I can call the « silence of the world ». The Jews know the sacrificed and the figures bear witness to this. As the battle of the ghetto ends of Warsaw on May 16, almost all of the 1,000 combatants were killed and 56,000 civilians are murdered or captured, in what appears to be the largest uprising Jew against the Nazi occupier to this day. The prolongation of the war teaches us that it’s henceforth considered as « total », all resources of the nations involved are directed towards the effort of war. In Germany, on January 28, a new conscription law passed. It obliges all men aged 16 to 65 and all women aged 17 to 50 to serve either in the armed forces or in industry military! Of course, anyone who dares to resist or hinder the war effort risks suffering the most severe punishments. On February 18, members of one of the few movements of resistance in Germany, the White Rose movement, are arrested in Munich. Most members of the White Rose are university students who denounce the crimes of the regime, in particular those against the Jews, the White Rose also denounces the general oppression of the Nazi regime and calls for open resistance. At late 1942 and early 1943, they distributed leaflets, pamphlets and traces anti-Nazi graffiti. And as you can imagine, the trial of its leaders is expeditious and well orchestrated. Arrested on February 18, they were executed four days later in a staged worthy of the French Revolution: they were guillotined! The resistance to the Axis forces is also transported to the diplomatic front in this beginning of 1943. On January 5, 18 allied countries issued a declaration in London which affirms their determination to fight Nazi plunder in the occupied territories and to restore these stolen goods once the war is over. The next week, on January 14, began the Casablanca conference where Churchill and Roosevelt discuss a possible invasion of Europe, specifically the invasion of Sicily and Italy. But what emerges above all from these debates is the discussion on the principle of « unconditional capitulation ». The question is: should this principle be made a guide to future strategies? Ten days later, on January 24, the conference of Casablanca ends. The Allies agree on the principle of unconditional surrender against Germany, because it now seems certain that Italy will capitulate without too many demands over the next few months. But time is running out. A few weeks later, on March 16, Stalin asked for the 9th time to the Allies the opening of this famous second front in the West. He accuses the Allies of treason given the slowness of events! And no offense to Stalin, the events move, and maybe even faster than he thinks. From May 12 to 25 is held in Washington a conference dubbed Trident. During these two weeks, the Allies plan in detail the next invasion of Europe, i.e., the opening of a front in Sicily scheduled for the summer. It also discusses –once again– the principle of unconditional surrender, especially as regards its application against Germany. Coming out of the Trident conference, where the USA is increasingly imposing its strategic vision, the American and British Allies agree to postpone of another year the invasion of France. The invasion would be planned for May 1944, in theory. This postponement is essentially linked to the lack troops and landing gear available, as well as the desire to have optimal sailing conditions at sea, in the air and on the foredecks to attack in France. From now on, it appears from Trident that the priority remains the invasion of the Sicily, as well as the continuation of the war in the Pacific, while maintaining the material aid provided to China, aid which it sorely needs. Now back to the battlefields. I’ll take you back to the eastern front, to Russia, where the savagery of the clashes seems to reach new heights in the second half of 1943. We’re on July 5, in the central zone from the front, straddling Russia and Ukraine. This is the start of Operation Zitadel, launched by the Germans. It consists of an offensive against the city of Kursk located 450 kms southwest of Moscow. The Battle of Kursk lasted about six weeks, this is the most great armored battle in history to date. Kursk forms a kind of salient, which the Germans sought to reduce by vigorous attacks from north and south of the city. Why then are the Germans going to engage resources so important to reduce to nothing this part of the front more or less strategic? In fact, Hitler seeks to reaffirm the strength of Germany to of its -to say the least- shaky allies, in particular with Italy and the fascists States of Eastern Europe. The idea is therefore to achieve a great victory to raise the morale of all, but also to weaken the offensive potential of the Soviets, because Hitler remained convinced that the USSR is at the end of its war effort. At the start of the offensive, on July 5, the Germans aligned about 1,000,000 soldiers, 3,000 tanks, including the latest models of Tiger tanks, 2,000 aircraft and 10,000 guns. Opposite, the Soviets expect a major offensive on the Kursk front and are preparing accordingly, to counter the threat of German tanks, they established a system of trenches and anti-tank pits several kilometers deep in order to make the front elastic and able to more easily absorb the shock of a possible retirement, and the same stroke of power to counter-attack when the time comes. Facing the Germans and their allies, the Soviets have about 2,500,000 soldiers, 7,000 tanks, 3,000 planes and 45,000 guns. In short, in Kursk, there are a lot of people! The Battle of Kursk ranks among the greatest battles of World War II in terms of troops deployed and the last major offensive launched by the Germans on the Eastern Front. On July 5, the German soldiers darken on the Soviet positions. As expected, the first lines of the Red Army retreat in good order despite the very heavy losses, but they feel that the advance is slowing down and that the German offensive is losing his breath faster than expected. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers fall from either side. Kursk is a real carnage where lie in the countryside the soldiers killed or wounded and where the carcasses of destroyed tanks and planes lie slaughtered by the hundreds. Just days after the start of the offensive, Hitler orders it to stop! He’s in this sense probably influenced by the imminent threat of an Allied invasion. in Sicily, an invasion to which I’ll return in a moment. Still, the Soviets regained the strategic initiative. It’s also the first time since the start of the war that a large-scale German offensive is suspended only a few days after its start because it doesn’t simply manages to break through the enemy front. Moreover, on July 12, a week after the start of the battle, the Soviets counterattack in the Prokhorovka region, about 100 kms southeast of Kursk. If you like armored vehicles, you’ll be served. It’s in this small sector located at the southern end of the Kursk salient that can be called the greatest tank battle in history. About 300 German tanks face 600 Soviet tanks, and it hits hard! The sounds of impact and ricochets of shells on armor can be heard at tens of kilometers around. The tank turrets burst, their tracks become spray, the crews of destroyed tanks are burned alive or torn to pieces in their vehicles, or are killed trying to escape. In short, it’s horrible! The Germans won a tactical victory there in terms of casualties, but the victory finally goes to the Soviets in strategic terms because, in terms of impacts on the entire Kursk front, it changes completely! On July 13, Hitler, as I said, stopped the offensive, but the Soviets continued to attack. On August 5, in the wake of their victory, they advanced on the central part of the front. Defeated, the Germans have no choice but to retreat and they’re forced to abandon the city of Kharkov, Ukraine, which is considered to be definitively released. The front line is now moving much further west, towards Kyiv. The Soviet victory at Kursk sends the signal that it’s now possible to reconquer Ukraine and, perhaps, to force the enemy to retreat on the whole from the eastern front. On August 25, in fact, the Red Army entered Smolensk, another important city occupied since the 1941 invasion. A few weeks later, on November 6, the soldiers of Stalin make their entry into Kyiv, whose fall constitutes an important stage in the liberation of the whole Ukrainian territory. This great coverage of the events of 1943 would not be quite complete without evoking a burst of episodes of a political and diplomatic nature that occurred in the second half of the year. For example, on August 5, Sweden –a Neutral State– announces that it no longer allows Germans to transit through its territory their soldiers, nor their military equipment. Sweden’s attitude the conflict, a bit like that of Portugal that we’ve seen, raises questions about the place of neutral countries in time of war. Also in August, from the 17th to the 24th, Quebec City -yes, the city where I’m born in Canada- hosts a very important Allied Conference. Within the walls of its citadel and its Château Frontenac, Roosevelt and Churchill discuss a variety strategic topics. This is the Quadrant Conference, a top secret conference which is also supposed to include Stalin, but this last isn’t able to participate for security reasons given the distance and risks associated with travel. Roosevelt and Churchill discuss planning a landing in France, an operation whose code name would be Overlord. The Quebec conference also deals with sending reinforcements to the new Italian front, because they know that this campaign will be much longer than expected. And as we’ve just seen, the degradation of the Italy’s military situation is such that this file is one of the priorities on the discussion agenda. Negotiations are also underway on improving development coordination of the atomic bomb between the USA and Great Britain, coordination in which Canada, host of the conference, is also involved. On this point, a secret agreement, called the Quebec Accord, was signed with the aim of combining resources for atomic and nuclear research, then for development of these future weapons. The Quebec Accord therefore brought about the merger of the British and American atomic programs, respectively the Tube Alloys programs and the Manhattan Project. The military situation in the Balkans is also discussed. The allies agree to provide material support to local guerrillas, particularly those in Greece and Yugoslavia. Obviously, the war will not be won on this front. As far as the Pacific is concerned, it goes without saying that the fight against Japan will continue and will go on intensifying. The USA is clearly taking the lead in strategy on this front. Naturally, the results of the talks are communicated to the USSR and nationalist China. There also emerged from the Quebec conference a joint Anglo-American statement regarding the situation in Palestine with the aim of easing tensions localities engendered by the long British military occupation. Let’s go back to Europe for a moment, more precisely, to the Mediterranean. As we know, the war is now over in Africa. The Allies are preparing their next campaign: the conquest of Sicily. In other words, the war is moving to Axis territories and more specifically on a portion of territory that belongs to Italy, an Italy now tottering and from which it’s hoped that the Allies will soon capitulate. The invasion of Sicily began on July 10, 1943, under the code name Husky. It’s about an amphibious and airborne operation which marks the start of a six-year campaign weeks for the conquest of this large island. The possession of the Sicilian territory presents some strategic advantages for the Allies. First, his release will allow them to eliminate the Axis naval air forces over a large portion of the Mediterranean front. The island of Malta will no longer be bombarded! Finally! Then, the Allies could install air bases there to extend the range of their bombers a little further to the east of Europe. Finally – and it’s a significant element that stems from a certain panic in Hitler- the opening of this front leads the Germans to transfer about 20% of their workforce from Russia to Italy. And this invasion of Sicily sees the Allies deploy about 160,000 infantry, mainly Americans, British and Canadians, and some 600 armour. To face them, the Italians have of about 200,000 men of dubious combativeness, supported by about 50,000 German soldiers who are on the way. It’s especially this last element that is dreaded by the Allies, despite the fact that the first hours of the landing took place relatively well and that the progress on the island is done at a steady pace. On July 22, American soldiers entered Palermo, marking the completion of the conquest of the western part of Sicily. The Allies plan to make their junction in Messines, in the east of the island, just on the other side of the shore which separates Sicily from mainland Italy. On August 11, what remains of the Axis forces evacuated Sicily with the aim of forming a new front in Italy given the arrival large German contingents in the area. Moreover, with the release of Messines made official on August 17, Sicily can now be considered as completely conquered. The loss of Sicily is a heavy blow for the Axis countries, but what makes them probably the worst is that Italy is thinking of capitulating! On July 25, while as fighting continues in Sicily, Benito Mussolini is placed under arrest after a meeting with King Victor-Emmanuel III. The king asks Marshal Pietro Badoglio to form a new government. Officially, Fascist Italy continues the struggle with the Axis, but secret negotiations are underway with the Allies with a view to an armistice. Mussolini therefore lost the confidence of the Grand Council of Fascism, which was the organ of the government, following a motion voted against it. The day after this putsch, Mussolini is officially ejected from his seat and his successors hasten to sign an armistice with the Allies. The armistice comes into effect on September 3, 1943, and it marks the official withdrawal of Italy from the war and the end of its strategic alliance with Germany and Japan. The Axis has just lost an important partner. The same day the armistice came into force, the Allied soldiers landed in mainland Italy, in the southern part of the famous boot. This landing marks certainly the beginning of another long campaign for the conquest of all of Italy. Why? Because the Germans present on the territory will not abandon the gone so easily! In an attempt to take them from behind, the Allies go there with a daring maneuver, on September 9, by landing troops in the Salerno area, near Naples. The idea, you will understand, is to confine the Axis forces in the south of the country. But this attempt to take the Germans from behind quickly turned against the Allies. The landing is improvised, without prior bombardment of the coasts to create surprise, but the German and Italian soldiers who remained loyal to the Axis resisted. The trap fails to close, so the Allies must retreat towards the beach and be content to hold a small piece of land without having been able to the junction with the forces landed in the south a few days earlier. Despite the defeat at Salerno, the Allies still advance from the south of Italy. The British capture the important port of Taranto then mount to the north. Simultaneously, as I was saying, the Germans sent large reinforcements to the Italian front. On September 10, these soldiers entered Rome and seemed to want set a front line from east to west of Italy using the Italian capital as a point of support. But for the German victory in Italy, a necessity arose: to disarm the Italian army. It’s important to do so, because, at the signing of the armistice, the Italian army still had about 1 million soldiers. At early September, the Germans launched Operation Achse, which consisted of disarm Italian troops that are infidels to the regime. It’s a long-term operation, insofar as the Germans must not only hurry to disarm the Italians, but they must send garrisons into the areas formerly occupied by the latter, particularly in the Balkans, in Italy, and of course, in the south of France. Moreover, some Italian units are resisting, among others in the Greek islands, to the point where many are the soldiers who take the maquis and join the resistance local. Others try in vain to confront them directly. Operation Achse left 20 to 30,000 dead in the ranks of the Italian army. Also in September, the 12th, the deposed dictator Mussolini, who has been since his arrest detained in Gran Sasso, is delivered by an S.S. commando led by Otto Skorzeny. Mussolini therefore remained loyal to Hitler and became the leader of a new puppet state called the Italian Social Republic or the Republic of Salo, i.e., fascist Italy remained loyal to the Axis. All these operations take place at the same time in the fall, when the belligerents in Italy clash on two fronts: one where the Germans increase the pressure against the bridgehead of Salerno, this stretch of beach that the Allies are desperately trying to hold, the other to the south, to stop the forces advancing at a brisk pace. The Anglo-American troops finally make their junction at Salerno on September 16, which makes it possible to constitute a kind of united front from east to west of Italy to begin a forthcoming offensive towards the north. The Italian campaign will be long and painful. Here too, the terrain and the climate are inhospitable. They fight in the mountains, sometimes in the plains and in the vineyards. In the villages in ruins, it isn’t always possible to determine in which camp are the inhabitants, because even if he was deposed, Mussolini still has many supporters. It’s also hot in summer, but the temperature can be rainy and cold in winter. In addition, German forces have the advantage of being able to defend a front with relatively few resources being given that they often occupy elevated positions in mounts and that Italy itself isn’t very “wide”. Nevertheless, the Axis forces must retreat to better defend themselves. We note by elsewhere, on September 19, that the Germans evacuated Sardinia and that Corsica was liberated by the Free French Forces a few weeks later, on October 4. In Italy, as I said, the Axis forces are retreating, but they’re doing it in good order and the Allies pay the price. Why? Well, because the Germans establish a whole series of defensive lines at different « heights » of the Italian front. For example, the southernmost defensive line of this arrangement, the Volturno Line, starts just north of Naples, west of the Italian boot, and ends in the east opposite the locality of Termoli. If this line falls, the Germans and their Italian allies will be able to retreat further north to another defensive position even better equipped. You’ll understood that the Italian campaign which begins in the summer and fall of 1943 is a long one. Clearly: the Allies must bring down each defensive line, one after the other, to the Austrian border! The arrival of autumn also means an accumulation of precipitation which slows down the Allies advance, if only because the rare roads in the valleys become quickly bogged down. It seems clear at the moment that Rome will not be liberated in 1943, but the Italian capital is now the subject of regular aerial bombardments. On November 2, British troops reached the Garigliano River located near the Gustav Line, another of those famous defensive positions located north of the Volturno Line, which has just fallen. This Gustav Line is probably the best equipped line of the German system, it’s defended to the west by the famous Monte Cassino, an old and famous medieval abbey, then to the east by the city of Ortona. The soldiers stare in front of Monte Cassino wondering how they’re going to capture this formidable defensive position, while Canadian troops deliver fierce fighting against the Germans in the streets of Ortona in December. In short, as Christmas approaches, the Italian front seems for the moment to stabilize, which momentarily allows us to go back to the theater of operations in the Pacific in the second half of 1943. As we know, the Japanese always offer formidable resistance and they’re far to be defeated. The naval and land battles are numerous, but I’ll mention here just a few. On August 15, Canadian and American soldiers land on the island of Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands. To their astonishment, hardly any shots are fired! The Japanese have abandoned the island! The folder of the Aleutian Islands now seems settled. However, on this same day of August 15, the battle of the island of Vella Lavella begins, located at the northwest end of New Georgia. This is a campaign which will end in October and which is part of the broader campaign for the reconquest of the Solomon Islands. The idea for the Allies is to take back all the Solomon Islands from the Japanese to use it as a starting point for the conquest of Rabaul, the most important city in Papua New Guinea and main Japanese base in the southeast of the Pacific. At the beginning of September, the Allies progress well in Papua New Guinea, so at the end of the month, it considers in a unofficial way end to this long campaign to reconquer the Solomon Islands. I say « unofficial » because pockets of Japanese resistance still exist in New Guinea, as well as the island of Bougainville in the northwest end of the Solomons. There, on November 1, the U.S. Marines face strong enemy resistance and will attempt to isolate or even contain the last Japanese garrisons and wait until the end of the war for them to capitulate. And that’s the problem, because the Japanese gather in small or larger garrisons,seem to be all over the Pacific Islands. They think they did the complete conquest of an island, but there are often pockets of enemies resistance that have not been completely eliminated. Therefore, it was in this context that Operation Galvanic began on November 20, 1943. It’s about reconquering the Gilbert Islands which form a series of 16 atolls and islands of coral located roughly halfway between Papua New Guinea and the Hawaiian Islands. Yes, take out your map! One of these atolls, that of Tarawa, is the subject of particular attention due to the strong Japanese garrison there. His reconquest is part of this allied strategy of « circumvention » and encirclement of the Japanese garrisons isolated in the Pacific. The capture of the Gilbert Islands is important to facilitate the movement of supplies and reinforcements between the USA and the Pacific front. However, as I was saying, there’s an enemy presence, an abnormally strong presence given the modest size of this archipelago. Still, on November 20, the Americans stormed the Gilbert Islands… and it’s a real carnage! They fight a terrible battle on the island of Bétio located in the atoll of Tarawa. The Marines are literally decimated, they’re crumbling under the fire of coastal batteries and the firing of Japanese machine guns. In American public opinion – which ends up being made aware of the events- are shocked by the extent of the losses. The Battle of Tarawa lasts three days, this is the first time the U.S. Marines faced serious opposition directly on the beach, following a landing of their amphibious troops. Clearly, the Japanese are waiting for them and they’re well supplied. In three days, nearly 1,700 American soldiers were killed out of the 35,000 initially engaged. However, almost all Japanese soldiers, and their Korean conscripts, are killed. In other words, at the end of the battle, the Japanese record about 4,600 soldiers killed and they lose about 20 prisoners. You’ll have understood it again: for them, capitulation isn’t an option! The terrible casualties suffered by the Marines in Tarawa are shocking to the strategists and public opinion, especially since the island and the archipelago had been the subject of intense aerial bombardments supposed to annihilate the enemy positions before the landing, where the question, perhaps cruel: are strategic bombings effective? Can they eventually annihilate, if not temporarily dislocate the front and industrial production of the opponent? The question is valid! It’s cruel to put the question in this way, insofar as the losses suffered during the air offensives are heavy, especially among the Allies who invest a fair amount of resources. In the second half of 1943, the Americans and the British intensified their bombing campaign against Germany and its allies. The cities of the Ruhr Valley, as well as industrial and port centers from northern Germany, as well as the capital of Berlin, are visited almost daily by bombers. The bombings are more and more deadly for civilian populations, especially since bombers can extend their radius of action because of their technological improvement and also because they can take off from bases formerly located in occupied territories. For example, on August 1, 1943, American bombers attacked several refineries of oil in Romania, from bases in North Africa, but the losses are really heavy! At least 53 bombers are shot down, resulting in suddenly the loss of about 650 airmen for mixed results. Some refineries are destroyed, but oil production continues nonetheless. On August 17, the Americans attacked in Germany in the region of Schweinfurt-Regensburg. There’s a good part of the German aeronautical industry, no less than 376 B-17 bombers heavily damage their targets, but the losses are catastrophic. 60 B-17 aircraft are shot down for a loss of at least 600 airmen who, unfortunately, are often left behind. Why? Because the hunters supposed to escort the bombers don’t have at this date a sufficient radius of action to confront enemy fighters. Consequently, the Allies are forced to postpone for several weeks certain bombing missions deep into enemy territory. Of course, the opponent’s war industry is damaged, but the losses suffered don’t allow renew the offensive in the short term to eliminate a target once and for all. Another example: on the night of August 17 to 18, British RAF bombers attacked the Peenemünde research center and missile base, that I have already mentioned. Again, about 40 bombers were shot down, not to mention that the bombs killed several hundreds of forced laborers, often Jews or prisoners of war. The results? The missile production program is delayed for two months! The target is damaged, but manages to « regenerate ». Want another example? Well on October 19, the German government orders at the Mittelwerk plant located in Kohnstein, central Germany, to produce 12,000 V-1 and V-2 type missiles. The factory is underground, precisely to avoid being directly bombarded as in Peenemünde. Did I tell you about the Schweinfurt raid earlier? Well on October 14, the Americans are doing it again! Of the 292 B-17 bombers committed, 63 didn’t return. That’s too much. It was then decided to suspend the strategic bombing missions in broad daylight as long as a sufficient quantity isn’t available long-range fighters to escort heavy aircraft during the trip. Note also: civilians are increasingly bearing the brunt of these deadly attacks. The war is total, civilians are subject to it in the same way as the military. Moreover, this increasingly important involvement of civilians is felt in several respects: whether it’s the bombardments or even during the campaigns of persecution of Jewish populations and other minorities, or within the framework of army resistance movements against the occupier. For example, on August 2, 1943, about 3,000 members of the Roma community, which I didn’t speak until now, are gassed in Auschwitz. A few days later, another insurrection breaks out in the Jewish ghetto of Bialystok in Poland. Like what had happened in the Warsaw ghetto a few months earlier, the Jews of Bialystok rose up when they learned that they’d be deported to the camps. As a result, they want to force the opening of a corridor through which the population could escape to the surrounding countryside. The idea has its merit, but the chances of success are slim. Armed with the means on board, about 400 of them attack the Germans with a few rifles, pistols and Molotov cocktails. And as was to be expected, the revolt was crushed and the leading heads of the insurrection commit suicide. At the same time, the Germans intensified their retaliatory measures against anyone would dare to challenge the authority of the 3rd Reich. For example, on November 3 and 4, about 43,000 Jews located in different concentration camps in Poland are murdered. These are reprisals against the various uprisings in the ghettos. In this case, Heinrich Himmler orders the murder of the Jews mainly located in the district of Lublin. Prisoners are stripped and forced to walk through the trenches supposedly hollowed out as anti-aircraft defences. Very loud music is played during all these hours with the aim, of course, drown out the sound of rifles and machine guns. The survivors are tasked with burning the bodies of their compatriots during this operation, which is considered the greatest massacre of Jews since the outbreak of hostilities. And as the last example of a long list massacres perpetrated by the Nazis, we note that of Kalavryta, in Greece. On 13 December, the Germans assassinate almost the entire male population of the village. About 700 people are killed in retaliation for the murders of about 80 German soldiers captured by one of the Greek guerrillas and no less than 1,000 houses are looted or destroyed. Moreover, on a more political level, let’s note briefly that on October 10 the Chinese nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek painfully sworn in as head of government of the Republic of China despite communist opposition. The next month, on November 9, Charles de Gaulle became the chairman of the Committee of the National Liberation, which confirms him in his position as the true leader of Free France. In Yugoslavia, where the struggle against the occupier was very strong, Communist Marshal Josip Tito also becomes the leader of the resistance and he proclaims a « democratic » Yugoslav government in exile. So, there’s as the year 1943 comes to an end, a major reshuffling of the political maps in the world. Its know that the Axis powers will eventually be defeated, but how much longer will the war last? The Allies can’t afford the luxury of relaxing the pressure, because the territories occupied by the enemy are vast and millions of individuals yearn for a possible liberation. On October 18, a conference is held in Moscow of foreign ministers of the great powers, they discuss the best way to strengthen military cooperation in order, precisely, to shorten the duration of the conflict and provide forms of trial and punishment for war criminals. The next month, in Tehran, another conference brought together for the very first time, on the same scene, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin. The plans for Operation Overlord discussed in Quebec become clearer and Stalin realizes that the promise of opening a second front in Western Europe materializes. In this regard, note that the Allies are setting up a new military organization: the Supreme Allied Expeditionary Force, led by American General Dwight Eisenhower. Also at the end of 1943, German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was made responsible for the defense planning in Western Europe in anticipation of a landing, landing that Eisenhower is planning. This is a another sign to the effect that the war will eventually move, or return, to France, sooner or later. We’ve been at war since September 1 1939. As I speak to you, we’re beginning the year 1944. Yes, 1944! You understood well. The world has been at war for a long time. We have even surpassed in duration the Great War of 1914-1918 and, of course, surpassed the death toll numbering in the tens of millions. The fatigue and weariness of the civilian and military populations are well felt, and it’s not over. Admittedly, on the Allies side, one can reasonably think that victory is at hand. Events on the military fronts speak from themselves. On the most important land front, that of Russia, the Soviet forces undertake the reconquest of the lost territories, they made considerable progress in Ukraine following their resounding victory in Kursk. In the Mediterranean, Sicily is conquered and the belligerents clash in the south from Rome. Italy has officially capitulated, leaving Germany and Japan to lead the struggle on behalf of the Axis. Although a front is open in Italy, Stalin still eagerly awaits the opening of a “genuine second front” in the West of Europe, i.e., in France. When? The Allies are of course keeping the secret. But it’s coming! In the Pacific, the Allies are in control of the strategic agenda. The idea is in particular to tighten the siege towards Japan by the reconquest of various archipelagos in Southeast Asia. More dark days are to be expected. The Japaneses are waging a fanatical struggle and it’s far from over! In the air and on the sea, the situation is as follows: the bombing Allies campaign in Europe is more intense than ever. Attacks are almost daily, to the point where the distinction between civilian and military targets is almost no longer made. At sea, U-Boats represent a constant threat in the Atlantic, but the situation seems under control, improving the protection of convoys and the quality of air cover greatly reduces the loss rate of merchant ships. Come on! Let’s go! 1944 awaits us! Where to start this time? Why not go to Italy? This new front abounds of activities at the beginning of 1944. To use a very Quebec expression: it smell quite a bit! From mid-January, the Allied forces came up against in front of a defensive position with the cursed name: Monte Cassino. It’s an medieval abbey of Benedictine monks located on a very high mountain, his position south of Rome is firmly defended by the Germans who intend to block access to the Italian capital. The British forces first attack the surroundings by crossing the Garigliano river located in the extreme western part of the Gustav Line, another of the famous German defensive lines in Italy. The Battle of Monte Cassino lasts about five months divided into several phases. The capture of this strategic position constitutes an operation of international scope, insofar as allied forces from of several nations participate and which represent no less than a quarter of million fighters. The British open the ball on January 17, three days later by the entrance on stage Americans who, unfortunately for them, suffer very heavy losses while trying to cross the Gari river, nicknamed by the soldiers the « Rapido » river, south of Monte Cassino. For two days, the Americans attacked in a hollow in the valley facing the Germans located in the heights, they try to cross the river in canoes, but they’re quickly caught in the rear and cut off from their refueling. In short, it’s bad! The Americans beat a hasty retreat on the other side of Rapido. They leave 800 prisoners to the enemy and some 1,300 soldiers killed against 64 for the Germans! The battle is a fiasco to the point where the rumor goes let the US Congress even consider conducting an investigation! The Allies are looking for other solutions to take Monte Cassino. On January 22, begins Operation Shingle which consists of a landing on the beach of Anzio, a coastal city south of Rome. Supposed to allow the Allies to take Monte Cassino reverse and block the way between the mountain and Rome, the landing of Anzio quickly turns sour, as in Salerno the previous year. They can’t attack neither Rome nor Monte Cassino! Why? Because the Germans are in Anzio, at least in the heights which dominate the city and the beach. The hope of cracking the front south of Rome is quickly annihilated, as the Allies failed to exploit the established bridgehead. The many logistical problems related to the landing caused the Allies to lose a precious time that they can’t invest in conquering the surrounding heights. Further east, the Anzio sector is full of marshes and the Americans and British disagree on the pace of operations. Clearly, the Germans are exploiting these flaws. Oh yes! I forgot! Small detail, you say. The Germans are sabotaging the swamp drainage pumps, creating a flooded area between them and the allied front. And since they occupy the heights and that the Allies advance only painfully, the Germans have time to bring in their artillery, which benefits from an impeccable view. The Allies are stuck in Anzio at late January and early February, the front stabilizes and they can no longer advance, at least for now, nor carry assistance to the Monte Cassino front. Of course, they forget the capture of Rome in this context. Meanwhile, the Allies begin on February 15 what can be called the second battle of Monte Cassino with the systematic destruction of the abbey under intense aerial bombardment. At early March, both on the Anzio front and on that of Monte Cassino, the Germans adopt a defensive posture. The bridgehead finally seems to resist for good and the Allies launched a third offensive on March 15 against the abbey, which was still resisting. It wasn’t until May 11, at the start of a fourth offensive led this time by the free Polish forces, that the hope is reborn to capture Monte Cassino and its abbey. The fights of this last phase last a week and the victory is declared on May 18. Simultaneously, the Allies managed to get away from Anzio beach. This front is definitively pierced on May 23, but instead of moving south to encircle the retreating Germans from Monte Cassino, the Allies advance north to take Rome. In doing so, they allow the Germans in Monte Cassino to fall back and join the rest of their troops to the north and solidify a new defensive line around Rome, a position dubbed this time the Hitler Line. Despite all, the battles of Anzio and Monte Cassino are victorious for the Allies, but the losses remain heavy. The Allies lose about 100,000 soldiers against 60,000 for the Germans. The fronts of Monte Cassino and Anzio make finally their junction on May 25. However, there is a misunderstanding between the Americans and the British, the Americans are in a hurry to capture the Italian capital, while the British want to perfect the encirclement of the remnants of the German army. Results? Rome is still occupied and the Germans in Monte Cassino were able to escape. Yes, I’ll come back! Let’s now move on to the eastern front, that’s, to Russia. The beginning of the year 1944 looks promising for the Soviets, who are still capitalizing on the significant gains made the previous year. On January 4, advance elements of the Red Army from Ukraine entered Poland. The same month, the Soviets advanced towards the Baltic countries, where the German resistance seems better organized than in the central part of the forehead. But to return to the northern sector, I’ld tell you that the notable event is the release of the city of Leningrad on January 27, which occurred after a voluntary withdrawal of the Germans given the deterioration of the situation in the central part of the forehead. In doing so, the city of Leningrad today Saint-Petersburg, can finally breathe after a siege that will have lasted 900 days and more than 2 million dead, mostly civilians who succumbed to the disease and starvation. Still late January, the Germans noticed a rapid deterioration in their situation on the Eastern Front, this is particularly worrying in the central portion of the forehead, which can be roughly called the Ukrainian front. Employing tactics and strategies akin to the famous German Blitzkrieg of 1940, the Soviets made significant inroads into Ukraine. The Germans realize that their losses are becoming increasingly difficult to replace, unlike the Soviets who are only getting stronger. These emphasize on mobility to destabilize the enemy and prevent it from consolidating. At early February, the front is concentrated in the isthmus of Narva where there’s an important fortress, the Germans defend this position behind the river of the same name. The Battle of Narva, in the northern part of the Eastern Front, lasts a few weeks and occupied the Soviets quite a bit in the first half of 1944. Violent hand-to-hand combat between the S.S. and the troops of the Red Army. Stalin’s soldiers must imperatively break the resistance on this front, if only to catch up with the progress made by their counterparts in Ukraine. In Ukraine, precisely, the Germans continue to withdraw from this immense territory where clashes continued throughout March. In early April, the Red Army rushes to the Crimea which is liberated in mid-May. Several thousand Germans and Romanians prisoners are thus captured. Now let’s go for a ride in the Pacific. Where are we at the beginning of 1944? Japanese expansion in Southeast Asia is definitely halted, but the Japanese empire is far from being defeated. At late January, the Americans landed this time in the Marshall Islands located not far from the Gilbert Islands near the equator, halfway between the Hawaiian Islands and Papua New Guinea -Do you have your maps? Yes ? Perfect!- Continuing with the Battle of Tarawa in November 1943, the Marshall Islands Campaign aims to establish naval air bases in this central part of the Pacific, moreover the painful lessons of Tarawa have been learned. For their landing in the Marshall Islands, the Americans deployed troops six times higher than the Japanese. Combined with increased firepower, the landing in these islands is done with much less heavy losses than in Tarawa. Moreover, the conquest of the Marshall Islands is part of this strategy to capture islands of the Pacific by going there « by leaps », i.e., to attack an archipelago one after the other in order to gradually get closer to Japan. Theater of clashes since 1942, the Solomon Islands are gradually being liberated and the front tends to establish in Papua New Guinea at early March 1944. Until May, the Allies landed in various places in this territory to eliminate the enemy naval air bases. Elsewhere, but still in the Pacific, British special forces dubbed the Chindits, continue at early March their incursions and sabotages behind the Japanese lines in Burma. It should be noted, and it may seem paradoxical, the Japanese, despite their defeats in the Pacific Islands, decided to launch an offensive towards India from Burma. This is how March 7 begins the battle of Imphal in Indian territory, a town near from the Burmese border. I’ll come back! The development of a new front in India doesn’t mean the end of the clashes in the Pacific Islands, quite the contrary. For most of March 1944, fighting takes place on the island of Bougainville located in the extremity northwest of the Solomon Islands, near from Guadalcanal. Badly prepared, the Japanese attacked the Americans, they receive them under a hellish fire that literally decimated the Japanese formations. During this period, the Japanese lose at least 3,500 soldiers killed and almost 6,000 wounded against about 260 American soldiers killed. The Japanese finally realize that the Solomon Islands area, where they have been fighting since 1942, is definitely lost. As is the case on many conquered islands, the Americans are often content after a victory to leave small garrisons there in order to isolate the surviving Japanese troops until the end of hostilities. That said, the Japanese can perhaps take comfort in realizing that their troops continue their progress in India along the front of Imphal at late March. But these gains in India don’t square well with the fact that in neighboring Burma, the Japanese are forced to retreat in several places due to Chindit attacks. Despite all, the Japanese in India are stubborn, they emerge in the plain of Imphal, northeast of India, and they end up gradually surrounding the British garrison mainly made up of Indian soldiers, but the latter resist and they support the seat of the city. On April 24, still in India, the British launched an offensive between the cities of Imphal and Kohima in order to keep open a rare road allowing supplies and break the encirclement of the Japanese against Imphal. Three weeks later, on May 12, Chinese forces invade northern Burma to take the Japanese from behind and, ultimately, force them to evacuate India. In the facts, this double pressure exerted by the British and Chinese allies obliges the Japanese to consider a general retreat from the Indochinese front. As expected, the Japanese evacuated India on May 31. The seat of the city of Imphal, which lasted three months, was definitively lifted on the next June 20. And while the situation of the Japanese is deteriorating in India and Burma, it’s not little better in the Pacific islands. Indeed, on June 15, in the logic continuity of their strategy by leaps and bounds, the American soldiers landed this time in the Mariana Islands, located in the middle of nowhere! In fact, the Mariana Islands are located about 3,000 kms north of the Papua New Guinea, about the same distance east of the Philippines, and also about the same distance southeast of Japan. Do you have your maps? I hope so! Just remember that, again, the objective is to get closer to Japan and to build naval air bases. One of the most important islands of the Marianas is that of Saipan located in the north of the archipelago. Americans set foot there on June 15, 1944. The Marianas campaign lasts at least three weeks and it isn’t all rest. Although victorious, the Americans fought for three weeks of untold savagery. They lose 14,000 soldiers, including 3,400 killed. For their part, and as usual, the Japanese garrison are almost annihilated: of the 30,000 soldiers present, at least 24,000 were killed in action and 5,000 others commit suicide. Yes, the American soldiers are the sad witnesses of these mass suicides among their enemies. And to these military losses must be added those suffered by civilians, because the Marianas have many Japanese inhabitants. At least 7,000 of them are killed, of whom about 1,000 killed themselves under the « encouragement » of the army, by throwing themselves from the top of the cliffs. I’d like at this stage of the conflict to be able to tell you that this war is over, that the horrors are now a thing of the past, but you know it’s not the case. I momentarily leave the Pacific and its nightmares aside to bring you again in Europe. We’re still in the first half of 1944. On January 16, American General Dwight Eisenhower arrived in London to assume the command of a new theater of operations: Western Europe. Naturally, the secrecy surrounding the scale invasion project with the code name Overlord must be kept at all costs. The hope of finally being able to liberate France and West Europe is very real, but it has to be done right. An immense logistical, tactical and strategic preparation is necessary, even vital to the smooth running of operations. In addition to a huge deployment in terms of staff and materials involved, which I’ll come back to in a moment, the soldiers allies continue a most intense training. The month of April is particularly active in this regard, allied soldiers of different nationalities train in combat and amphibious assault exercises. The initial date set for the offensive is June 5, but deteriorating meteorological conditions forces the Allied high command to postpone the landing for 24 hours. The operation therefore officially takes place on June 6, or more precisely in the night of June 5 to 6, because from the very end of the day of the 5 June and in the night around the 6th, more than 1,000 bombers attacked the German coastal batteries. Still in the middle of the night, about 30,000 American, British and Canadians paratroopers are dropped over Normandy, especially at the ends east and west of the demarcated front area. Still in the middle of the night of June 6 until the wee hours of the morning, no less than 160,000 infantry divided into two American infantry divisions, two British troops divisions and a Canadian division, assisted by some international contingents at the smaller numbers, take the beaches of Normandy by storm! That’s it! The liberation of France begins! However, the battle is hard, savage even in some places. For example, American soldiers landing at Omaha Beach are greeted by a deluge of fire. The day of June 6, 1944 is costly for the Allies, their losses amount to at least 10,000 men, including 4,000 soldiers killed, their losses are at least double from those of the Germans, but bits of Normandy beaches were conquered. Five bridgeheads were established at the start of the day on June 7, the day after this dual amphibious and airborne operation. Operation Overlord is to date the greatest amphibious invasion in history, it marks the beginning of the liberation of France after four years of Nazi occupation. What is more, and Stalin can now finally rejoice in it, another front is open to Western Europe. Still, the hard meteorological conditions of June 6 and the high tides make the task particularly painful for the attackers on the beaches. German resistance is also variable from one landing sector to another, and let’s add that the parachute drops sometimes are far from precise. In the American sector of operations, paratroopers sometimes land 30 kms from their objective! Yes, it’s not close at all! So, the Allies attacked on the beaches along a front of about of 80 kms. American soldiers disembark at the end west of the front, on beaches codenamed Utah and Omaha. As for the Anglo-Canadian troops, they land east of the Americans on beaches coded Gold, Juno and Sword. On some occasions, strong winds cause deviate the landing craft to the east with sometimes disastrous consequences, especially for the Americans in the Omaha sector who are received with uninterrupted gusts of machine guns and mortars. In addition, under the supervision of Marshal Rommel, the beaches are mined and strewn with anti-tank obstacles to the point where the German resistance, without completely stopping the landing, seriously manages to slow down the Allies. Indeed, they don’t reach the goals set on D-Day, i.e., for the same day of June 6. For example, major cities like Carentan, Saint-Lô and Bayeux are still in German hands on June 6. As for the capital of Normandy, the city of Caen, this one is also under German control on June 6th. In the immediate term, given that all the D-Day goals haven’t been achieved, the Allies prioritize the consolidation then the connection of the five bridgeheads on the beaches. Clearly, the priority is as follows: form a continuous front while pursuing advance in order to get out of the beaches as quickly as possible. The next days of the Normandy campaign saw the Allies advance more deep inland and, logically, the Germans bring reinforcements once recovered from the shock wave of the landing. At late June, the Allies present a united and consolidated front. The hope of the Germans throwing them back into the sea is gradually fading away. Moreover, sign that the Allies settle, they build on the beaches two artificial seaports to ensure their supply, plus to benefiting from the recently liberated port of Cherbourg. From now on, you’ll have understood it, the second front is indeed a reality, after four years away. The liberation of France is underway! I’ll come back! Now I want to talk to you about what’s going on in the air warfare. As you can imagine now, the rate of aerial bombardments is intensifying in 1944. It’s above all the Axis countries that bear the brunt of these attacks more deadly. On February 19 begins a series of bombardments on Leipzig, it’s in fact the beginning of an operation lasting one week, which is nicknamed the « Big week ». The idea behind the « Big Week », which lasts until February 25, is to take from the German aircraft industry and coerce the Luftwaffe to a large air battle to possibly reduce its strength in the western part of Europe in the context of the Normandy landings that we have just seen. But the losses during the « Big week » are significant, about 360 British and American heavy bombers are shot down and at least 2,000 airmen are killed, and this, despite the increasing presence of escort fighters. As for the Germans, the « Big Week » cost them 250 fighters and 100 pilots killed. The Allies nevertheless consider the « Big Week » a success and they count to continue other similar campaigns. We also note that the bombers, as I had already mentioned, extend their radius of action and that the losses among civilians are becoming stronger. And you believe that the Germans let them just do? Well, no! On June 13, while we fight in Normandy, V-1 type missiles fall on England. As Hitler is pressed to direct this new technology against the Allies front in Normandy, this one requires rather that the missiles fall against the British civilians. The idea being, according to him, to obtain a kind of revenge against D-Day and he firmly believes that these missiles, all the same murderers, will bring him victory. What is certain is that at the end of June 1944, the Allies, still stuck in Normandy, have not yet reached the launch bases of these famous missiles. It’s even expected that the pace of these attacks will intensify, that remains to be seen. Let’s just say that the British feel like they’re living again, under another form, the Blitz of 1940. On the naval front, the beginning of 1944 saw a marked improvement in the situation of the Allies, in particular in the Atlantic Ocean, in particular with regard to their control of the seas and their position in relation to the routing of supplies. On the Pacific side, a major naval battle takes place in the Philippine Sea on June 19 and 20, 1944. In two days, the American fleet inflicted a terrible defeat to his Japanese opponent, it manages to eliminate Japan’s ability to drive again large-scale operations at sea with aircraft carriers. Along with the landing of American troops in the Mariana Islands, the Battle of the Philippine Sea is the largest naval battle in history in terms of the number of aircraft carriers involved. No less than 24 units including at least 1,300 aircraft are taking part in the engagement. The Americans call this battle the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot, as if it were a real game of hunting because of the appalling and disproportionate losses suffered by the Japanese. Imagine: the Americans lose a damaged battleship, about 120 planes of combat and a hundred soldiers killed. On the Japanese side, 3 aircraft carriers sunk, not damaged, but well sunk, 600 aircraft lost and 3,000 troops killed! No, we’re no longer in 1941. From now on, the Allies, and in particular the Americans, impose their strategic agenda on the Japanese. However, nothing is over in the Pacific. I’ll come back! Now let’s see what’s happening on the home front. Naturally, we can’t say everything for lack of time, but I retain certain events in this first half of 1944. On March 10, was created in Greece a National Liberation Policy Committee. Under the domination of the Communists, this committee declares itself in open struggle against the occupier and against the government in collaboration with the Germans. Moreover, the committee also declares itself against the Greek royal government in exile. Clearly, if we read between lines, difficult tomorrows are to be expected for the Greek people. Can we talk about a possible civil war? Maybe. That we’ll see. A little further north, in Hungary, Operation Margarethe began on March 19. It consists in the military occupation of this country by German troops, because, and this is where the shoe pinches for the Germans and in particular for the Nazis, the Fascist Hungary government is secretly negotiating a separate peace with the Allies. Yeah! German soldiers were quick to enter Hungary, in particular to get their hands on its few oilfields and take effective control of Hungarians troops remained loyal to the Axis, a bit like we saw with the fall of Italy the previous year. Operation Margarethe is also motivated in the face of the threat of Soviet invasion, which is very real and to which I’ll return. Still, Hitler, just to create a diversion, met the Hungarian leader in Austria, Admiral Horthy, from March 15 to 18 in order to leave Hungary without a command when they occupy the country. And it’s not just in Hungary where things are heating up for the Axis. On March 19, Yugoslavs supporters attack the city of Trieste, on the border between Italy and Slovenia. The situation in Yugoslavia is getting more and more out of control for the Germans. The next week, on the 24th, the city of Rome became the scene of a massacre of civilians. In fact, 335 Italians, including a few dozen Jews and members of the resistance are murdered in the Ardeatine Pits. It’s about reprisals, because the day before, on March 23, the Italian resistance killed 32 S.S. soldiers and wounded 110 others. This is the biggest attack of Italian supporters since the fall of the fascist regime the previous year. On June 2, in the context of the imminent landing in Normandy, is created the Provisional Government of the French Republic to giving France a government at the time of his release. But this liberation, as we have seen, doesn’t take place without clashes, and here I’m talking of the fate reserved for French civilians. On June 10, four days after the start of the landing, the SS massacred an entire community, that of Oradour-sur-Glane, near Limoges. No less than 642 men, women and children were executed in the harshest conditions that one can imagine, in particular some being burned alive inside a church. Like previous massacres perpetrated by the occupier, it’s often, but not always, retaliatory for the actions of the local resistance. Come on, let’s leave the apocalyptic flames of Oradour to head to another hell, that of the Italian front in this second half of 1944. On June 3, Rome was declared city ​​opened by the Germans and the latter withdrew again towards the north. The day after, the Allies make their entry there. The Eternal City is now free! However, resistance grew stronger from mid-August when the Allies reach one of the last major German defensive lines in Italy which is at the height of Florence: the Gothic Line. This last position ends up by being pierced and the Allies gradually emerge in the plain of the river Po, near from Venice, where roughly speaking the front line at the very end of 1944, but the progress towards Venice is slowed down due to the weather, where the terrain becomes bogged down with snow and rain. In Greece, it’s the turn of the capital Athens to be liberated by the Allies and local resistance forces. We notice that the German soldiers evacuate the mainland part of the country, but they occupy several islands where the garrisons are relatively isolated. Clearly, in Italy as in the Balkans, the Axis forces fall back. The siege is tightening in the southern part of the European front. Let’s see now what’s happening in Russia where, there too, the front is moving! First, the liberation of Leningrad and the advance of the Russian front towards the west increase the threat of a Soviet invasion which already hangs over Finland in the context of the so-called Continuation War. Having been unable to conclude an agreement on the delimitation from their common border, the Soviets attacked Finland on June 9 with the intention to eliminate it from the conflict and thus facilitate the advance towards Berlin. The capital Helsinki is still out of reach, but it’s considered that the Finland will sooner or later end up withdrawing from the conflict in the face of the obvious general deterioration of the entire Eastern Front. But the Finnish front is relatively secondary insofar as the main effort of the Soviets is definitely on the continent. On June 22, Stalin’s troops launched Operation Bagration, which constitutes one of the most important offensives of the Red Army since the beginning of hostilities. For about two months, until mid-August, the Soviets attacked in Belarus and manage to destroy the Central Group of German Army. It’s certainly a major defeat for the Wehrmacht whose remnants fall back hastily towards Poland. Operation Bagration cost the Germans no less than 450,000 soldiers killed and prisoners, plus to seeing 300,000 of their comrades trapped in the Courland Pocket, a peninsula west of Latvia. The northern part of the Russian front breaks up and the soldiers of the Red Army advance during the summer in Lithuania, Poland and Romania. It’s literally the stampede on the Axis side, the front cracks not only in the north, but also in the center and south. Clearly, the offensives are successful, the Baltic States are gradually liberated, as well as several towns in eastern Poland. On July 24, the Soviets made the macabre discovery of the Majdanek concentration camp, near from Lublin, Poland. I’ll return to the horrors perpetrated in these camps of death, because other camps of the same type are unfortunately still in operation at the time. On the front line, the German resistance seems stronger to the west of the front of the Narva River, in Estonia, insofar as this sector has a double strategic importance: it’s the gateway to East Prussia, German territory, then makes the connection with the Gulf of Finland for the control of the Baltic Sea. On July 28, the Soviets entered Brest-Litovsk in Belarus, the very place where they had been forced to sign a humiliating peace with the Germans in 1918. Inevitably, the German border of East Prussia ends up being reached in mid-August, while the Red Army continues its advance in Romania, and given that the eastern front cracks at several points, events jostle. On August 23, Romania broke its alliance with the Axis, his soldiers surrender to the Soviets and the new Romanian government joins the Allied camp. Another worrying sign for the Axis: on September 4, Finland negotiates a ceasefire with the USSR. In the same continuity, the Soviets entered Bulgaria on September 8 and the Bulgarians break their alliance with the Axis the next day. Again, Bulgaria joined the Allied camp. You « can » say at this point that things are really not going well for the Axis; it’s the least we can say! The bad news continues to unfold. The next day, September 15 begins what we can call the Lapland War. This consists of a declaration of war from Finland to Germany to respect the terms of the armistice signed with the USSR, against which it remains technically in a state of conflict, and force the Germans to withdraw their troops from Finnish territory. The diplomatic situation between Finland and the USSR is finally regularized with the signing, on September 19, of a treaty which puts an end to the Continuation War which has lasted since 1941. Freed from the Finnish front, the Soviets can concentrate their efforts in the Baltic countries. Estonia is, so to speak, liberated at late September and the Red Army is clearly marching towards the Polish territory, of which they already occupy certain towns in the south-east. On October 1, the Soviets entered Yugoslavia, a country where the fronts met of the East and the Balkans. A few days later, it was the turn of Hungary and of Slovakia to see the boots of the Red Army on their soil. In this new front sector of central-eastern Europe, we can say that the resistance of the Axis is especially strong in Hungary. From October 6 to 29, the Battle of Debrecen in the east of the country where German and Hungarian soldiers who remained loyal to the regime, temporarily slowed the Soviet advance. Further north, the German resistance remains very strong on the border of the East Prussia, especially around the Neman River, although on the whole, we understand that the Axis situation is out of control on the Eastern front. On December 29, as the year draws to a close, the Hungarian capital of Budapest is under siege. Inside the city are about 75,000 soldiers Germans and Hungarians ready to do battle again with the Soviet invader. The siege looks long. I’ll come back! Now let’s go to the Pacific side. The Allies continue the reconquest of the territories occupied by the Japanese. Take out your maps again! For example, on July 6, the battle rages on the island of Saipan, in the Marianas. Probably the biggest banzai-type infantry charge. Not less than 4,000 Japanese soldiers were killed that day and the island, which would become in turn an important naval air base, was definitively conquered on July 9. On July 24, it’s the turn of the island of Tinian, still in the Marianas, to be taken by assault. The Americans plan to build a major air base in Tinian for their B-29 type long range bombers which will directly attack the Japanese territory and, who knows, will deploy the future atomic bomb there! During August, its observes that American and Chinese forces are progressing in northern Burma with the capture of the important city of Myitkyina. Still in August, the island of Guam is liberated, as are all the Marianas which, like I said, will be converted into air bases to wage war against Japan. In mid-September, the Americans landed at Peleliu, an island located in the Palau islands, halfway north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines. Americans had planned that the campaign would last only four days, but the resistance is terrible. The Japanese learned the lessons of their previous defeats and they built lines of defense in depth, all dotted with fortifications, not to mention the usual fanaticism displayed by their troops. The conquest of this island of barely 15 kms2 lasts at least two months! The American victory is achieved, but raising controversy, apart from the presence of a small airstrip, the strategic value of Peleliu seems strongly questionable in view of the heavy losses suffered by the Marines. They can nevertheless think that the capture of Peleliu is part of a global strategy which is to tighten the siege against the Philippines, the next big goal of the allies. The campaign that begins for the capture of this ambitious objective must last several weeks, in what will be both a land battle and a sea battle. On October 20, 1944, the battle began from the Philippines. For three days, the US Navy waged a fierce battle against its rival Japan in Leyte Gulf, the battle is terrible because American marines discover with horror and astonishment that Japanese airmen are now using a new tactic to sink enemy naval units: Kamikazes! A Japanese word that can be translated as « divine wind », the kamikaze is a pilot who performs a suicide mission by throwing his device full of explosives against a target. Considered a priori more effective than a conventional attack, the kamikaze-type mission observed for the first time in Leyte Gulf in October 1944, at a a time when Japan’s hope of winning the war was dwindling. We remember that at this stage of the conflict, the Japanese lost several naval air battles, their best pilots have been killed, their aircraft models are gradually overtaken by those of their enemies and they have lost control of the tunes. Japanese losses of skilled pilots mean it’s becoming increasingly difficult to replace them and to take the time necessary to train new ones. What’s more, the Japanese aeronautical industry is no longer able to meet the ever-increasing demands for new aircraft in large quantities. Combined with the unwavering will of the Japanese not to capitulate, all these factors are to be considering in the decision of the Japanese command to resort henceforth to suicide bombers as the Allies approached Japanese territory. Simultaneously, the Allies go there for an amphibious operation with a landing in the region of Leyte, located in the center of the Philippines. The Americans are deploying 200,000 soldiers accompanied by a few thousand Filipino guerrilla fighters. Opposite, it’s estimated that 80,000 Japanese fighters intend to defend ferociously not only the Gulf of Leyte, but of course all of the Philippines. As still the fights are wild, but the situation quickly turns to the advantage of the Allies given the general state of the Japanese army. At this stage of the war, the garrisons of the Japanese empire have more and more difficulties to resupply properly due to the high loss rate suffered by their units of maritime transport. In the Philippines, the number of Japanese soldiers is estimated at 50,000 fallen in combat from October to December 1944. Of this number, about 80% would have been put out of action due to illness or famine, which already says a lot about the state of the Japanese army. And as I mentioned, the Philippines campaign is also distinguished by the immense naval air battle which takes place there from October 23 to 26. The United States, assisted by units of the Australian Navy, won a decisive victory. The purpose of the Battle of Leyte Gulf being to prevent the Japanese from reinforcing the Philippines at the time of the Allied amphibious landing. Again, the losses of the Japanese navy are catastrophic, and the word is weak. No less than 26 surface units, 46 troop transports and a few hundred ships merchants are sunk on the Japanese side, the importance of these naval losses can be explained partly because the Philippines is rich in natural resources that have long fueled the Japanese war industry, especially oil. The end of 1944 in the Pacific doesn’t quite mark the end of the campaign from the Philippines. The front is gradually moving north to reach the region of Luzon where Japanese resistance is still being felt. Now I bring you again to the western front, that’s, to the theater of operations in France. Yes, in France! It’s been pretty quiet since the defeat of 1940, but this front has been revived since the Allied landings in Normandy. I mentioned before that the objectives that the Allies had set on the day D had not all been reached. This is normal, because the resistance of the German army became increasingly strong in late June and early July 1944. As they advanced inland, the Allies realized how the terrain is difficult. In fact, they had not really taken into account the difficulties for their soldiers to have to fight in what’s called the « bocage », i.e., in these famous hedges that characterize the Normandy landscape. The hedges are so dense and bushy, that it becomes really difficult for infantrymen as for armored vehicles to force their way through. On the other hand, for the German defenders, the bocage becomes useful to them insofar as it makes it possible to create ambushes, to hide nests of machine guns, to even as sharpshooters, the « snipers ». In short, Allied intelligence had misjudged this danger, to the point where American, British and Canadians soldiers often have to improvise ways to get through hedges, in particular by using shear-clamps mounted on the tanks. Still, despite the harshness of the fighting, particularly in the region of Caen where the Anglo-Canadian troops face the formidable Waffen S.S., the city of Caen ends up being released on July 9, a month after the landing. The fall of Caen marks the gradual weakening of the German front in Normandy. Moreover, on July 17, one of the main commanders of this front, Marshal Erwin Rommel, is seriously injured when his vehicle is machine-gunned by a plane ally. Not only are the Germans losing an excellent strategist and a charismatic leader, but their front is falling apart more and more. On July 25, the Americans began Operation Cobra, which aimed to break through the western part of the Normandy front, when the bulk of the German forces tried to resist the Anglo-Canadians around Caen. So, west of the front, the Americans are carrying out the breakthrough and the war of movement picks up again from the end of July and the beginning of August. The events jostle and things are going badly for the Germans. From August 12 to 21, several tens of thousands of German soldiers are almost surrounded in a pocket forming around the town of Falaise. The Battle of the Falaise Pocket sees the Germans trapped to the west by the arrival of the Americans, then to the north and to the east by the tightening of the siege under pressure from British, Canadian and Polish troops. Although many German soldiers did manage to escape the encirclement, others, numbering in the thousands, are literally killed by ruthless grapeshot Allied armor and aircraft, or are taken prisoner. And here you probably see me coming, because the end of the battle of the Falaise Pocket, on August 21 means, if you look at the map, that the road to Paris is open! But I’ll come back! Before, I want to briefly mention that as the events unfold de Falaise, the Allies launched Operation Dragoon on August 15. What is it about? Quite simply: a landing in the south of France, more precisely in Provence. The idea is to secure French ports in the Mediterranean and then to increase the pressure on the Western front by creating a sort of second front further south. German resistance to this new landing is relatively weak compared what we saw in Normandy, the German soldiers present in the sector aren’t necessarily elite troops and the French resistance plays a role noticeable in order to secure passageways for the landing. A general retreat is ordered to establish a new defensive line in the Vosges, near from the German border. But now, as promised, I’m coming back to Normandy. We’re on August 25, 1944. German forces retreat. What does that mean? Yes, Paris can be seen in the distance! The City of Light is at your fingertips! With some astonishment, they realize, on the one hand, that the Germans flee the capital without trying to defend it then, on the other hand, that they don’t execute the orders given them to proceed to a systematic destruction of the city. Consequently, the Allies made their entry into the French capital on August 25, after four years of occupation. Without wishing to fall into sentimentality, it doesn’t hides the joy, even the delirium experienced by the Parisian population and the allies troops, including those of the French soldiers who took part in the liberation of Paris. The liberation of the capital is quickly followed by that of several other French cities in the general context of the collapse of the German front. What’s more, the Allied soldiers from Normandy made their connection with those arrived from Provence in early September. The Allied front is unified and is preparing to move east, while Parisians celebrate their liberation. The Germans retreat hastily to the east, where their intentions seem quite clear: to defend the western border of Germany, which becomes the new front line. Therefore, the Allies are advancing rapidly in the northeast of France. The coastal cities along the English Channel are quickly liberated, to the point where the Allies even entered Belgium in early September 1944. The Allies also entered Luxembourg and even set foot on German territory, in Aachen. Naturally, as soon as the German border is reached, it’s normal for resistance to intensify. Resistance looks strong against the Siegfried Line, a defensive line originally built in the 1930s to facing the Maginot Line. The Siegfried Line runs along the western border from Germany to the Netherlands to Switzerland, it’s made up of thousands of bunkers, tunnels and anti-tank traps. Also in September, but further north of the front, the Allies launched the operation Market Garden, which lasts a week, from the 17th to the 25th. But what is it exactly? Well, the idea is to take the Flanking Germans by liberating the city of Arnhem in the Netherlands by creating a kind of salient at least 100 kms completely north of the front, in what appears to be a huge pincer movement by creating a bridgehead on the other side of the Rhine. By doing so, an invasion route to northern Germany would be created. Not less than 40,000 Anglo-American paratroopers were to take part in the battle. They must capture strategic bridges and hold them long enough for troops on the ground join them as quickly as possible. Operation Market Garden, which is the largest airborne operation in the war so far, is a partial success, as a few cities are liberated in the Netherlands, but the famous bridgehead beyond the Rhine can’t be established, hence the famous expression “A Bridge Too Far“. The Allies experience many logistical and coordination problems between the troops airborne and those on the ground, not to mention the strong German resistance in the Arnhem area. The failure of the Allies to establish this famous bridgehead on the other side of the Rhine put an end to the very legitimate hopes of ending the war in the West in 1944. Allied losses are at least twice as high as those of the Germans, with at least least 15,000 troops lost, including 6,000 paratroopers taken prisoner. Clearly, the war in the West continues. In October, American soldiers came up against at the Siegfried Line, as the Canadians struggled through Belgium and the Netherlands. A first major German city, Aix-la-Chapelle, fell on October 21. Also in the fall, fierce fighting involving American soldiers takes place in the Hurtgen forest, a few kilometers east of the German-Belgian border. Strategically, the Hurtgen forest constitutes, if it falls, a gateway towards the center of Germany and the German command wishes to have this sector in view of a new offensive that he intends to launch to reconquer the lost territories. What? A new offensive? This implies that the German command would therefore still be capable of launching another major offensive in the West, as in the heyday of 1940? Does he have the means to do all this? Well, yes! The German general staff is counting on the winter weather, on the precarious supply situation for the Allies and on the dispersal of their troops to go for a final attempt to reconquer France! Gathering all their remaining soldiers, the Germans attack in the Ardennes on December 16, 1944 and it’s serious. The attack begins early in the morning, a few days before Christmas, in this Belgian forest that we now know is passable. About 400,000 German soldiers, 1,400 tanks and 1,000 planes, in short, all that remains of the army in the West take the same path as their predecessors in 1940. It’s the same battlefield! The attack therefore begins in the Ardennes, then the German divisions move to Luxembourg and the north-east of France. The idea justifying this offensive of the last hope lies in preventing the Allies from using the port of Antwerp at full capacity to improve their supplies, then to dislocate their front to isolate their armies to negotiate an eventual peace in favor of the Axis. Quite frankly, the Allies didn’t see it coming. The surprise is total in the morning of December 16. Overconfident and not benefiting from adequate aerial reconnaissance due to the weather, the Allied troops, and more particularly the Americans, take the hardest blow and probably their heaviest casualties of the war. The territory gains on the German side are significant, the Allied front retreats less to Dinant, Belgium. The next day, in Malmedy, which is near from Dinant, the German Waffen S.S. assassinate 84 American war prisoners. That says a lot about the savagery of the clashes, it’s merciless. However, German losses, although small at the start of the battle due to of the element of surprise, end up rising dangerously and, contrary to those of the Allies, these losses are now irreplaceable. American soldiers resist with the energy of despair, this is particularly the case in the sector of the Bastogne road junction, in Belgium. The municipality is quickly under siege. Until Christmas Day, the alley command is seriously considering the possibility of a general retreat, as in 1940! However, the shock wave of surprise eventually passed and, importantly, the weather improves, allowing the air force to once again play its role of reconnaissance enemy positions. Around December 23, the American soldiers counter-attacked and eventually relieved the siege of Bastogne on Boxing Day, which somehow confirms not the end of the Battle of the Bulge, but at least the failure of the initial German offensive. In fact, this battle, due to the size of the troops involved and the seriousness of the events, is expected to last several weeks. It occupies the rest of the year 1944 on the Western front. Although the long-awaited front breakthrough wasn’t achieved for the Germans, their offensive delays the Allied advance towards Germany. In fact, the offensive planned on German territory at the end of 1944 was delayed by five at six weeks. And as you’ll have understood, the Germans deplete just about all their remaining military resources on the Western Front. This is at least the observation that can be made as the year draws to a close 1944 and the first glimmers of 1945 are dawning. The losses suffered by the Germans also weakened their defense of the famous Line Siegfried, which is in a way the gateway to German territory. Can the Germans still hope to win the war? Clearly, the offensive in the Ardennes doesn’t bring the expected results. Can Hitler then bet on new technologies, such as its famous V-1 and V-2 missiles? Until the last days of 1944, these missiles fell on England at a rate still quite surprising and regular. In November, it’s estimated that an average of eight missiles fall daily almost everywhere in the British Isles, but above all in London, killing and injuring a considerable number of civilians. Hitler is also betting on a new model of fighter planes that are equipped not a propeller engine, but a jet engine! The first hunter equipped of such technology was put into service in the summer of 1944. This was the Messerschmidt 262, which shot down a first enemy aircraft on July 26. Two days later, a first fight involving another jet model, the Messerschmidt 163 « Komet » caused amazement among Allied airmen, but the alleged damage inflicted by these revolutionary contraptions are often exaggerated. The mechanical defects of the engines, the insufficient flight autonomy, especially for the Komet, and the exhaustion of the German aeronautical industry dampen the value jet fighters in the military context of 1944. However, it now seems certain that the heyday of propeller planes is coming to an end, but not right now. The Allies, and in particular the Americans, are still counting on the propeller technology to employ their long-range aircraft in strategic bombings missions. For example, in the Pacific, on July 10, the Japanese capital Tokyo is bombed for the first time since the famous Jimmy Doolittle raid in early 1942. In October the Americans now use islands recently conquered to wage war more and more regularly in Japanese territory. The island of Tinian in the Marianas sees a major deployment of heavy bombers B-29s that have sufficient range to reach Japan and return to the same starting basis. Now, I wish to end this great review of the year 1944 by briefly mentioning events taking place on the domestic and diplomatic fronts. First, on the home front, Chancellor Adolf Hitler is the victim of another attempt of murder at his headquarters in Rastenburg, East Prussia, on 20 July. This umpteenth attempt almost succeeded. Led by an officer named Claus von Stauffenberg, the codenamed operation of Valkyrie aims to kill Hitler and replace him with another leader who will put end to the war. More specifically, the idea is to take political power in Germany by taking over the control of the armed forces from the hands of the Nazis and the S.S., then, of course, to make peace with the Allies, at least those on the Western front ASAP. Why do I say that Operation Valkyrie almost succeeded? Well because a bomb concealed in a briefcase placed under a conference table where Hitler is meeting with his staff explodes and causes significant damage. The problem? Well, the famous briefcase containing the powerful bomb wasn’t placed at the exact spot to kill the leader of the Third Reich for sure. It’s assumed that a officer located near Hitler would have used his foot to push away the briefcase which encumbered his movements, thus making it possible to distance the bomb somewhat from its main target. Naturally, once recovered from the shock, Hitler ordered terrible reprisals against the perpetrators of the attack and their families, including von Stauffenberg, as well as the Marshal Rommel, much less involved and of whom we now know the great service status. The latter chooses suicide in order to spare his family. The plot resulted from the combined efforts of several anti-Nazi resistance groups in Germany, but that doesn’t prevent the secret state police, the terrifying Gestapo, to arrest 7,000 people, of whom about 5,000 will be executed including Colonel von Stauffenberg. A few days later, on August 1, an insurrection of a magnitude hitherto unmatched. The Polish Home Army, which includes several organizations of resistance engages a real battle after five years of occupation. This major insurgency operation began when Soviet forces approach the Polish capital, on the other side of the Vistula river. However, on Stalin’s orders, the Soviets didn’t intervene although their elements the most advanced are indeed in the suburbs of Warsaw! For 63 days, until October 2, Polish insurgents clash with occupying German forces. As I was saying, Stalin orders his troops to halt, thus leaving the time for the Germans to organize the systematic repression and destruction of Warsaw. The Western Allies try somehow to provide air supply to the insurgents, but the effect remains limited. In fact, it’s likely that Stalin was against the idea that the Poles take control of their own country in hand before until the Soviet dictator had time to install a communist puppet state there. They always fight and it’s violent, about 22,000 Polish fighters are killed during the insurrection and the reprisals are inhumane. The German soldiers, made up essentially of SS troops from the fine flower of society, for example war criminals, common criminals and even Russian collaborators of the same ilk murder at least 150,000 Polish civilians in the week of August 5 to 12, 1944. About half of these victims died in the Wola district of Warsaw, on direct orders from Hitler who demanded that the Polish capital be razed to the ground. We then witness improvised massacres. Entire families are murdered, rapes become a weapon of war, patients are massacred in hospitals with the nursing staff, all this at a time when mock trials are taking place against the main leaders of the July 20 plot. And while the situation goes from bad to worse for the Axis, Hitler orders, on October 18, the conscription of all men aged 16 to 60 who aren’t yet in the army, whether valid or not. These people are now obliged to serve in the militias of the People’s Army. The Volkssturm militiamen receive basic training and they usually have military equipment of second hand. Responsible for supporting the regular army in its mission of defense of the Reich, the militiamen are placed not under the command of the Wehrmacht which normally would have them integrated into its hierarchical structure, but under the Nazi Party, because Hitler trusts the regular army less and less since the July 20 attack. Yeah, we got there! The mobilization is truly total. The ideology before everything. Before concluding, let’s talk about the diplomatic front. From August 21 to October 7, 1944 is held, in vicinity of Washington, Dumbarton Oaks Conference. The representatives of the allied governments discuss the principle of creating an international organization after the war, in the continuity of what had been said at the Moscow conference the previous year. There’s now recognition of the need to establish a new international organization to replace the defunct League of Nations, the organization to be born must henceforth have coercive means to impose peace in the event of conflict. In other words, the Dumbarton Oaks conference aims to define the principles and basic structures of what will become a kind of organization of « united nations ». And parallel to the events of Washington is held the second conference of the city from Quebec, Canada, from September 12 to 16. The conference codenamed Octagon sees the American and British governments define the future zones of occupation of the German territory once hostilities have ended. President Roosevelt, who has just been elected for a 4th term, discusses with his British counterpart, Churchill, of what is known as the Morgenthau Plan, a plan which consists of the progressive demilitarization of Germany once it’s defeated. The Americans and the British also agree in Quebec on the maintenance of the lend-lease agreement, i.e., economic aid provided by the United States to Great Britain. They also discuss the strategy consider for the year 1945 in the Pacific, more particularly with regard to the future use of the atomic bomb, the use of which seems more than probable, as soon as a first copy is put into service. As we can see, victory now seems certain, but it’s far from over! I begin today the episode of the year 1945 of this series devoted to the World War II. We have come a long way from the first episode of the year 1939! Europe and the world have been at war for five years. Five years of suffering, massacres, destruction, deportations and sacrifices of all sorts. And as the year 1945 begins, we can reasonably think that the victory of the Allies over the Axis forces seems certain. I wouldn’t say « certain », but probably “acquired”. Why? Well, let’s see the situation on the different foreheads. On the Western front, the Allies landed in Normandy and liberated France. The last chance German offensive in the Ardennes is running out of steam. The belligerents clash on the Rhine, along a line that crosses the Netherlands to the Swiss border. The war is now at the gates of the Third Reich. On the Eastern front, the Soviets have reconquered all the territories lost since 1941. They march in Poland, Central Europe and the Balkans. Stalin’s soldiers are also knocking on the doors of the Third Reich. Germany is well and truly surrounded! As for the Italian front, the 1943 landing in Sicily and the Italian campaign which ensued weren’t easy. However, at the beginning of 1945, the front positions from East to West of the country at the height of Venice. Here too, the siege tighten. The Allies approach the Austrian border. In the Pacific theatre, Japanese troops still occupy large portions of territories, whether in Burma, China or the islands of Southeast Asia, but we feel that the Allies have perfect control of the strategic agenda and the recent reconquests of 1944 bring them closer to Japan. At sea, the German submarine threat is still present, but it’s in no way comparable to that at the start of hostilities. The German submariner danger is clearly under control and the supply of the Allies to Europe is progressing smoothly. In the air, the German and Japanese air forces certainly constitute threats but, as at sea, these threats diminish. Strategic bombings against German cities and Japanese are daily and very deadly for civilians. Is there any hope, in this context, that the year 1945 might bring the end of this which seems to be the deadliest war in history? To find out, it’s important to return to the battlefields. Come on, it’s not over! 1945 awaits us! Let’s head towards the western front, because it seems that this front is particularly active at the very beginning of 1945, in the context of the last hope offensive attempted by the Germans in the Ardennes. And it’s not over! On January 1, in full celebration of the New Year, the Germans launch Operation Bodenplatte. As the Battle of the Ardennes fought a few days earlier, it’s a last-ditch offensive, but this time by air. Operation Bodenplatte sees the Luftwaffe attack Allied airbases which are mainly located in Belgium and the Netherlands. The idea behind the offensive is to take back –momentarily at least– the control of the sky in order to be able to relaunch the land offensive of the Ardennes, but with air support free of interference from Allied aircraft. In fact, Operation Bodenplatte was planned for December 16, 1944, i.e., at the same time as the Ardennes offensive, but bad weather forced the postponement. Nevertheless, when the sky seems to be clearing up, on January 1, and in the greatest secrecy, about 1,000 German planes attack! The Allies are taken by surprise, allowing their enemies to record some tactical successes, but no ultimate victory. True, many Anglo-American devices are destroyed on the ground, but these losses are easily replaceable; on the other hand, each German plane now destroyed in 1945 can be, for its part, considered as irreplaceable. Strategically speaking, the operation Bodenplatte is a failure for the Germans who see the Allied aviation resume initiative. The Allies lose around 500 planes destroyed or damaged, against around 250 for the Germans. Despite all, as I said, the losses of the Luftwaffe are materially irreplaceable, just as it’s proving increasingly difficult to train pilots of high level. In short: the Luftwaffe can no longer fulfill its mission. From now on, it seems certain that it’ll play a marginal role until the end of hostilities. But the Allies weren’t at the end of their problems at the start of 1945. Although the clashes in the Ardennes are experiencing a relative respite, there has fighting further south. The Germans this time attack the Franco-American front in Alsace-Lorraine. The fighting raged in the Colmar region in the first week of January. This latest German offensive in the West seems to be justified by the thinness of the front face them, insofar as the Americans don’t stop reinforcing the Ardennes front in the north, but they neglect the southern part of the defended line by some reconstituted American and French troops. They’re not only fighting in Colmar, but the Germans are trying to capture Strasbourg, the Allied front is practically broken, but the French and the Americans resist as best they could. Further north, in Belgium and the Netherlands, Anglo-Canadian troops face strong resistance, especially in the region from the Ruhr in Germany and from Maas in Netherlands. Here again, it seems clear that the conquest of German territory will not be easy. Despite all, the Allies can still be satisfied, because in late January 1945, it seems certain that Germany on the Western front no longer has any capabilities of serious attacks. Progress towards Germany can resume! The next challenge for the Allies is now to cross the Rhine, this important river which constitutes the natural border separating Germany from Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg to the Swiss border. But, in all honesty, the Rhine is a real obstacle, crossing it raises both military feat and logistical challenge. Admittedly, the Allies have an undeniable air superiority, but the troops of the German forces on the other side of the river, despite their recent defeats, intend dearly defend the national territory. The idea would be to be able to capture intact bridges that will allow the Allies to quickly cross the Rhine while preventing the Germans to reconstitute a solid front line. The month of March 1945 saw the Allied forces on the Western front deploying significant logistical means for this famous crossing of the Rhine, naturally, the risks associated at the crossing -as we have just seen- are numerous. The Allies set in motion Operation Plunder, where the idea is to cross the Rhine in several places, just to prevent the Germans from offering resistance on a specific point; to do this, the Allies identify key cities for the crossing, these towns, from north to south, are: Wesel, Remagen and Mainz. Large smoke screens are deployed, Allied guns are constantly pounding the enemy positions on the other side of the river and the Landing Craft type set off. German resistance was particularly fierce in the American sector of Remagen, where crossing the Ludendorff Bridge gives engineers a hard time, who are under constant attack from German infantry, the Luftwaffe and even missiles V-2. Throughout these days of hell, the Allies manage to cross the Rhine with several of their infantry divisions who now aim to rush towards the industrial center of the Ruhr. What’s more, the Allied command launched Operation Varsity on March 24, which consisted of to drop several thousand paratroopers east of the Rhine to establish a another bridgehead and stop or slow down possible enemy counter-attacks. Unlike Operation Market Garden, the previous fall, Operation Airborne Varsity proves to be a resounding success. On March 27, the Allied paratroopers are firmly established east of the Rhine, thus allowing a less risky crossing of the river for the rest of the infantry who must follow the advance. And this advance of the Allied forces towards eastern Germany… well, it going a little too fast! Why? Because the Allies seek to coordinate their movements with the Soviet forces coming from the Eastern front. From a common agreement, the Allies agree that the Soviets will capture Berlin. For their part, more and more Germans are realizing that the war is indeed lost. On April 2, several German armies are literally surrounded in what is known as the “Ruhr pocket”, about 300,000 soldiers of the 3rd Reich are gradually trapped by the most advanced elements of the British and American forces east of the Ruhr. The Germans can also no longer get out to the west, because the river of the Rhine so difficult to cross is now an obstacle to them! Defeat looks inevitable. On April 18, as the Allied armies advanced always towards the east, the north and the south, these 300,000 men are surrounded in the huge pocket between the towns of Wesel, Remagen and Lippstadt. The shock of the defeat affects not only the soldiers, but also the German civilians, the end of the battle of the Ruhr pocket creates a wave of panic in the German population who realizes that, from now on, the war is indeed taking place on the national territory. Germany is a country of fire and blood. The horror of material destruction strikes the imagination of the Allied soldiers who advance in the territory of the Third Reich. But this is only the beginning, other horrors await them. I’ll come back to it. Now let’s take a look at the Italian front. It’s no longer such an active front at the beginning of 1945, but the war wasn’t over for all that. The front line crosses the country from east to west between the cities of Ravenna and Genoa. With the arrival of the beautiful season, operations resume in the spring. April 6 marks the start of a general Allied offensive in northern Italy. The fighting is particularly intense in Lombardy. The objective of the Allies is to push the enemy as far as possible towards the Austrian border, but the mountain range formed by the Alps suggests progress to Austria will be logistically difficult. The Allied command hopes to retain on the Italian front a maximum possible number of enemy troops, while not neglecting any offensive opportunity which would allow the front to be pushed further north. In late April, large contingents of Axis forces are surrounded in the Bologna region. Without speaking of total victory, the Allied strategists consider that the war on the Italian front is almost over. Of course, the German high command on the Italian front is well aware of the situation. In fact, on April 29, and despite Hitler’s refusal, the German general staff in Italy makes the decision to capitulate. All Axis forces on that front immediately cease combat, the allies capture and disarm hundreds of thousands of combatants. The capitulation of the Axis troops in Italy materialized on April 29, at the royal palace of Caserta, near from Rome. The treaty enters into force a few days later on May 2, but the fighting is already over. In short, the war in Italy is well and truly finished. Now let’s move to the eastern front. As you know, we have been fighting there since 1941, since the famous German invasion of the Soviet Union. Well, now in this beginning of 1945, the roles are reversed. While in 1941 the Germans were knocking at the gates of Moscow, it’s now the turn of the Soviets to knock on those from Berlin. January 13 marks the beginning of a long offensive by Stalin’s soldiers in the German province of East Prussia. The idea being to capture this German border region and head for Berlin, the capital of the Third Reich. It’s the beginning of a campaign of more than three months where the Soviets intend put the pack there. Opposite, the Germans manage with difficulty and misery to align all available able-bodied men from the regular army, but also with conscripts of the people’s militia of the Volkssturm. The German soldiers intend to offer a very strong resistance. In fact, the noise short that the Soviet soldiers who enter the territory of the Reich intend to act in a ruthless manner. There are rumors that the Soviets are executing or deporting war prisoners and that they don’t hesitate to assassinate or deport civilians, not to mention rapes committed against women. Clearly, the German resistance promises to be strong on the side of the soldiers and civilians try to flee the Soviet invasion. A few days after the start of the offensive in East Prussia, Soviet troops enter Warsaw on January 17, they install a puppet communist government there and continue their progress both in Poland and in East Prussia. Red Army soldiers are also advancing elsewhere, if only by exploiting weaker points on the German front. For example, on January 31, they cross the Oder, an important river in eastern Germany. In doing so, they’re at this date about 80 kms from Berlin. Further south on the eastern front, February 13 marks the end of the battle and the fifty-day long siege against the Hungarian capital from Budapest. Axis forces – made up of German and Hungarian soldiers who remained loyal to the fascist regime – capitulate. The city of Budapest has clearly suffered, it’s almost totally destroyed and about 80,000 civilians died there, either from disease, starvation or any other kinds of deprivations associated with the siege. The fall of Budapest confirms out of any doubts the withdrawal of Hungary from hostilities, but it also marks the opening of another invasion route to Berlin, this time from the south. However, as I told you, the German resistance on the Eastern front is particularly strong. From March 6 to 15, 1945, the Germans attempted a last ditch effort in the southern part from the front, i.e., in Hungary, as part of the operation entitled Spring Awakening. This German operation in Hungary gives the impression that it’d be the last of the Third Reich, which has little almost no resource. The battle of Spring Awakening is fought south of Budapest, near from the lake Balaton. It seems to be justified insofar as it’s absolutely necessary to secure the Hungary’s last oil reserves. Moreover, a German victory in this sector would also block for some time the road leading to Vienna. The Battle of Spring Awakening can be considered a tactical victory for the Germans, but strategically the Soviets still have the initiative. In short, they’re only delaying the inevitable defeat. Indeed, the Soviets can replace the tens of thousands of fallen soldiers in this region between 6 and 15 March, but this isn’t the case for Germans, who lost so many men. At the end of March, the Red Army entered Austria and approached Vienna. The battle for the Austrian capital is part of a context where one feels that Stalin is in a hurry to conquer the whole country. The latter wants to have a possible asset with a view to upcoming negotiations with the Allies on the redrawing of the European map. Near from Austria, this time in Slovakia, the capital Bratislava fell to the Red Army in early April, almost along with the loss to the Germans of the important province of East Prussia. The fall of the latter is another blow for the armies of the Third Reich. The Soviets took tens of thousands of prisoners and the road to Berlin seems more open than ever. I’ll come back! Now let’s take a trip to the Pacific side. The eventual victory of Allied forces in this theater of operations at the start of 1945 doesn’t seem so certain than in Europe. Certainly, we have seen that since late 1942 and early 1943, the Japanese retreated on all fronts in this immense confrontation zone. On January 5, for example, Japanese troops retreated into Burma, pursued relentlessly by the British soldiers. In late January, the northeast of the country is gradually liberated and the Japanese continued their retreat towards China. In early January, on the Philippines side, American soldiers landed in Luzon, in the northern part of the country. The campaign for full possession of Philippes definitely doesn’t look easy. For a month, i.e., from early February to early March, intense fighting take place in the capital Manila, in what probably appears to be the worst urban warfare of the Pacific campaign. The city is razed and at least 100,000 civilians perish either because of the fighting or because they’re murdered by the Japanese soldiers. Another milestone of the Pacific campaign in 1945 was the Battle of Iwo Jima. The name may not mean anything to you, but it’ll soon mark the American imagination. You’ll then say to me: « Yes, but Iwo Jima… is it another insignificant island or one of dubious strategic importance? As that of, for example, Midway or Tarawa? Well, almost, but not. Iwo Jima is effectively a 20 kms2 island -yes, it’s small!- located 1,200 kms south of Japan, halfway with the Mariana Islands, but it’s still located relatively « close » to Japan and its capture could serve as a take-off base for American bombers, much like the Marianas do. The Battle of Iwo Jima began on February 19, 1945, and the American command planned from the outset that the conquest of the island will last several weeks. The island is heavily fortified, the bunkers seem to outnumber the trees, the Japanese artillery positions are almost invisible to American observers. All this is explained by the fact that about 20 kms of tunnels were dug to house the local garrison! Moreover, Iwo Jima is recognized by the presence of the imposing Mount Suribachi, a mountain located in the southwest of the island and which constitutes a formidable defensive position. The American command has justified concerns about the difficulty of the task, but it can be reassured since they dominates the sky and the sea, so the Marines landed on the island under a real hellfire of Japanese defenders well organized and buried. The Americans are deploying no less than 110,000 men to face an enemy garrison estimated at 20,000 combatants. The battle is terrible, terrible! For a month, until March 26, Americans – and this is a first in the Pacific war – lose more soldiers than the Japaneses. No less than 26,000 fighters fell under the Japanese grapeshot, or about 7,000 soldiers killed and some 19,000 injured. As always, almost all of the garrison Japanese is annihilated with 18,000 soldiers killed, or having taken their own lives. Fighting is raging all over the island and especially for the conquest of the Mount Suribachi, which finally falls on February 23. As soon as the position is captured, and in what appears to be a staged war correspondent Joe Rosenthal takes a photo titled Raise of the American Flag that quickly became iconic; you have already seen this photo several times. As I was saying, Iwo Jima is of definite strategic importance, the island has airstrips and once served as a forward base to alert mainland Japan of the arrival of bombers. Many were the Japanese fighters who took off island to intercept them. Now, with the fall of Iwo Jima, the roles are reversed. Americans put hand on two airstrips located in the center of the island, these will serve emergency landing sites for B-29 bombers returning from missions. Iwo Jima is therefore considered secure around March 16, after a month of fighting. Still in the Pacific, the other major battle in sight for the Allies after Iwo Jima consists of the capture of another island of strategic importance: Okinawa. There, it’s undeniable, they’re indeed getting closer to Japan. Okinawa Island is located about 640 kims south of Tokyo, it’s an island about 100 kms in length. You guessed it, no doubt, the capture of Okinawa will allow the Allies to build air bases for a possible attack and invasion of Japan. As at Iwo Jima a few weeks earlier, the Allies – in fact, especially the Americans- invest significant resources in what seems to be the most important amphibious operation since the beginning of the war in the Pacific. The Battle of Okinawa which began on March 26, 1945 saw no less than 540,000 Americans soldiers face about 110,000 Japanese soldiers made up of regular troops and islanders quickly conscripted for the invasion. And do I surprise you if I say again that the fighting in Okinawa is to say the least intense and of an unnamed savagery? To the usual resistance of Japanese troops are joined by air attacks from kamikaze planes. From March 26 to July 2, the Americans lost about 50,000 of their soldiers against 100,000 for the Japanese, plus around 150,000 civilians are also killed there, including many students expressly mobilized for this battle. These last losses are due, of course, to fighting, but also to massive suicides, about half the civilian population of Okinawa is killed! At sea, the Battle of Okinawa also proves quite a spectacle; let’s say it like that. The Americans lost about 12 destroyers there, about 400 more of their ships are damaged to varying degrees, just as they lament until July the loss of 750 aircraft. On the Japanese side, the Battle of Okinawa also presents dismal figures. It’s during of this commitment that the famous Yamamoto battleship –the largest military building ship of the world at the time– was sunk by the US Navy on April 7. Believe it or not, this ship weighs almost 73,000 tons! He had for mission to prevent American landings in Okinawa. He ends up sinking under the dive bombers, dragging no less than 3,000 Japaneses sailors to the bottom of the sea. Finally, it should be noted that elsewhere in the Pacific, while the fighting raged in Okinawa, Australian soldiers invade the island of Borneo, near Java and Sumatra, in during a campaign that lasted quite a long time, from May 1 to August 15, 1945. And while the battles in Borneo, the city of Rangoon, Burma, is liberated on May 3. Fighting also continues in New Guinea, where again the Australian soldiers have their hands full against the Japanese. On the side of China, we know that the fighting has known almost no respite since the 1930s, but at the beginning of 1945 there was a general retreat of Japanese forces, a retreat that can be explained by the defeat suffered by the Japanese Empire near from there, in Okinawa. Moreover, when the Japanese abandoned their conquests in China, the island of Okinawa is considered secure by the Americans on June 22. Unsurprisingly, the majority of members of the Japanese general staff kill themselves in what seems to be, for the moment, the last great battle to conquer an island in the Pacific. Certainly, the Americans are delighted with their victory, but one question remains: will it be possible, sooner or later, to conquer Japan? At the sight of the savagery of the fighting in Okinawa, it’s a safe bet that the Japanese will give no quarter to the Americans in the case of a possible invasion of their national territory. Clearly, other means will have to be considered to force Japan to surrender. I’ll come back! At this point, I open a parenthesis to talk to you, as I do regularly, about the chapter on air warfare. In Europe, we have seen that the Luftwaffe offensive of January 1 constituted in a way the last dice throw of the Germans to regain control of the sky. In fact, however, the Allies enjoyed in 1945 an air superiority that can be described as overwhelming, for example, the aerial bombardments against the major German cities and those of the Axis are more intense and more regular than ever, especially as the resistance offered by the Luftwaffe diminished. On February 3, Berlin was again the victim of an air attack by the Allies, but worse still is the treatment suffered by the city of Dresden, Saxony, from February 13 to 15. The bombing of Dresden seems highly controversial, insofar as the value militarily strategic of the city doesn’t seem well established. In two days, Dresden suffered four attacks from 1,200 Anglo-American heavy bombers. At best, Dresden is a railway hub, but has no important weapons factories. Nearly 4,000 tons of explosive and incendiary bombs are dropped there and about 25,000 civilians died. The bombs cause a gigantic fire which destroys about seven square kms in the downtown. Despite all, are the means deployed by the Allies justified? The debate rages then as it does today. In the Pacific, the year 1945 in turn saw an intensification of Allies bombardments against Japanese targets. On March 10, as we have seen in Dresden, a heavy American bombardment of the capital Tokyo caused about 100,000 civilian casualties. And the intensification of the American bombardments can be explained by two reasons. First of all, the recent conquests of certain strategic islands in 1944 and 1945 ensure that aircraft can now take off from nearby bases to attack Japan. Then, the increasing number of attacks by kamikaze planes create a kind of emergency on the American side. Indeed, they realize that it’s necessary to put an end to these attacks by destroying the production factories of these planes as well as their take-off bases. In June, the island of Kyushi, the southernmost of Japan’s four main islands and from where come from several attacks by suicide bombers, bear the brunt of the American bombardments, just like Osaka, the other major industrial center. But are all these air and ground offensives carried out on the borders of the empire Japanese in 1945 proved sufficient to force him to capitulate? It seems that no. Japan resists again and again. I’ll come back! Let’s now turn to the home front and the diplomatic front, where the year 1945 knows its share of incidents and horrors, as one feels that the end of the war is approaching. In January, in Greece, strong tensions between the different political factions in the country, especially between the Communists and the partisans of the royal government in exile, make fear the worst. The civil war is looms on the horizon in a country where they have only just been liberated. It was also in January that Hitler made the decision to settle permanently in his bunker in Berlin, he doesn’t intend to leave the capital of the Third Reich, even if his immediate entourage implore him as the Soviet troops approach. His bunker isn’t far from the chancellery and he intends to fight until the end. On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, in the USA, President Roosevelt lends sworn in on January 20 for a fourth term, which is a record at one time where the country’s constitution didn’t clearly prohibit a president from exercising more than two terms. Roosevelt has Mr. Harry Truman as vice-president this time. Barely re-elected, the American president goes to Europe where he intends to meet Churchill and Stalin to discuss, in particular, the end of hostilities in Europe, because yes, the forthcoming victory of the Allies in Europe is now beyond doubt. Sooner or later, the question of redrawing the European map will have to be addressed after the surrender of Germany. In other words, they must seek limit the ambitions of the Soviet Union. But the news that I think grabs attention early in 1945 on the home front is the discovery by Soviet troops of the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, on January 27, in southern Poland. The scene is nightmarish. Seriously, words fail me! It’s a factory of death. A factory specializing in the slaughter of human beings, some corpses are stacked there by the hundreds, the smell is indescribable. For the few survivors still able to walk, they advance like zombies, their faces are inert, empty of expression save that of the horror to which they are unfortunately accustomed. The Auschwitz concentration camp has been in operation since the spring of 1940. We’re now at the beginning of 1945. In five years, it’s estimated that about 1 million the number of people murdered there out of the about 1.3 million people deported. They are mostly Jews, Poles, and Gypsies prisoners and Soviet war prisoners. The dead like the alive seem anonymous to us, so many of them have lived and perished there, but names reappear: the young Dutch-born writer Anne Frank figures among the victims. His diary of the time of the occupation of his country captivated the world. Other figures such as the writer and doctor in chemistry Primo Levi stayed there, as did the French writer and politician Simone Veil, as well as the philosopher Elie Wiesel who all recount their experiences lived in this death camp. Auschwitz-Birkenau is a huge complex of about forty concentration and extermination camps divided into three main camps, namely Auschwitz I, II and III. Part of the complex is made up of labor camps, another part of extermination camps with its gas chambers. Auschwitz-Birkenau is, if I may say so, an integral part of the Final Solution. The complex grew throughout the war. Trains full of Jews and other prisoners arrive daily from all over Europe. Most prisoners are gassed as soon as they arrive, others died of starvation, exhaustion, illnesses, torture, shot or died during medical experiments. The German torturers did try to conceal their crimes, in particular by deporting Auschwitz prisoners westward as Soviet soldiers approach, but it’s a waste of time. The world is now learning about the Nazi concentration camp system. The consternation is total! I’ll come back to it. And as the world learns of the events at Auschwitz, the three great Allied leaders Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin meet on February 4, within the framework of the important conference of Yalta, in Crimea. For a week, the future winners of Germany discuss the redistricting future European borders and respective post-war zones of influence. It also addresses the question of the reorganization of Germany in political, military, economic and social terms. A bit like in 1919 in Versailles, we seek in Yalta not only to increase collective security in the world, but also to guarantee the independence of peoples liberated from Nazi occupation. Naturally, there’s a strong wind of skepticism regarding future ambitions politico-military of the USSR, as the armies move towards Berlin. The idea would be, in Yalta, to divide Germany and its capital into different areas of influence between the USSR, Great Britain and the United States. It’s also agreed that France –which is struggling to regain its place among the major military powers– also has its own zone of occupation in Germany. Another important element that emerges from Yalta: the imperative demilitarization and “denazification” of German institutions and society. As for the reparations that Germany will have to pay, its future victors envisage whether in the form of forced labor to repair the damage caused in occupied countries. The Yalta conference also gave birth to the reorganization of the Polish borders, in particular by monopolizing territories to the east of the Third Reich. President Roosevelt also obtained from Stalin a commitment that the USSR would participate to the future organization of the United Nations, he also asks the USSR to commit to declare war on Japan once Germany is defeated. Finally, let’s retain from the Yalta agreements a last not insignificant element, which may obvious, you’ll say to me: the Allies agree to track down the criminals of Nazi wars, then ideally judge them in the territories where their crimes were perpetrated. I’ll come back to it. In the weeks following the Yalta conference, when he had just begin his fourth term, the world learns of the death of President Roosevelt on April 12. He died of polio, a disease that affected him for many years, his vice-president Harry Truman is now sworn in as the 33rd President of the United States. The next week, on April 20, Chancellor Adolf Hitler “celebrates” his 56th birthday in his bunker where he’s now installed. Rumor has it that he isn’t in good health, that he’s nervous and depressed. And the defections in the immediate entourage of Hitler are more numerous, convinced of the inevitability of defeat, important figures of the Nazi regime such as Hermann Göring, Albert Speer and Heinrich Himmler are all trying to save themselves. The regime is collapsing. Another sign that events in Europe were precipitating in late April 1945, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini also tries by all means to escape fate. Heavily disguised, Mussolini was finally captured by partisans on April 27 in northern Italy as he tries to flee to Switzerland. The next day, Mussolini and his longtime mistress, Clara Petacci, were shot and their bodies exhibited in Milan, hung upside down. Hitler is informed of the events and he feels that his end is approaching. On April 29, he marries his longtime girlfriend Eva Braun. However, their union will probably be of short time. Why? Well, because the next day, April 30, Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide in their Bunker, in Berlin, probably using a combination of poison and firearms. Hitler would have shot himself possibly in the head, and his wife would have swallowed a cyanide capsule. In accordance with his latest instructions, Hitler ordered that his body and that of Braun be transported to the surface outside the bunker to be burned with gasoline in the garden of the Chancellery. Before killing himself, Hitler wrote a will naming Joseph Goebbels as Reich Chancellor and Admiral Karl Donitz as Reich President. The death of the Nazi leader doesn’t quite mark the end of the war in Europe. There has still fighting in central Germany, around Berlin and in Czechoslovakia. In fact, the classic distinction that we now know between, for example, the western and eastern fronts is becoming more and more blurred, insofar as Allied troops in the West are closing in on the incoming Soviets from the east. If I can still speak of a « Western » front, the month of April 1945 saw its share of horrors and fights. As news of Hitler’s death spread, American soldiers liberated the Buchenwald concentration camp located near Weimar in central Germany. It’s estimated that at least 56,000 prisoners were executed out of the nearly 280,000 that the Buchenwald camp received. The American soldiers thus enter the camp, they see there all the horrors and atrocities committed by the Nazi regime. The American general and future president Dwight Eisenhower in turn visits one of the sites of this concentration camp and the British troops liberate, a few days later, the Bergen-Belsen camp located in Lower Saxony. In Bergen-Belsen, same scenario, no less than 50,000 of the 120,000 prisoners died there, including many Soviet prisoners of war, Jews and prisoners of other nationalities. At the time of liberation, the British forces find that there are still 60,000 prisoners in the camp, almost all of whom are sick and starving. Walking between the barracks, there are at least 12,000 corpses scattered and piled here and there inside as in the immediate surroundings of the camp. The camp is overcrowded, so much so that this promiscuity encourages the proliferation of diseases such as typhus, tuberculosis, dysentery, all diseases that increase the death rate of prisoners. Despite the discovery of the Nazi concentration camp system, the Allied and Soviet forces continue to grow in Germany. On April 25, American and Soviet troops make their junction on the river Elbe at the height of the municipality of Torgau. Germany is officially cut in two. Four days later, on the 29th, American soldiers liberated another concentration camp major of the Nazi regime: Dachau. Again, same horror scenario. At the same time, we welcome with joy and satisfaction the news of the liberation of Denmark and Netherlands, where German troops surrender to Anglo-Canadian forces, on May 4. And while the next day officially began in Reims, France, negotiations in view of the German surrender on the Western Front, American troops liberate another camp, that of Mauthausen in Austria, where about half of the 300,000 detainees died there. But the horror in Europe is coming to an end, it’s almost over of the Nazi regime. During the night of May 7, 1945, the belligerents signed the official capitulation of the German troops on their front. German General Alfred Jodl signs the text on behalf of Reich President Admiral Karl Donitz, which effectively ended the war on the Western Front. What will later be called Victory Day, V-Day, Victory in Europe Day, takes effective the next day, May 8. The war seems well and truly over… well, almost! Because it’s not all over yet. I deliberately chose to first tell you about the end of the war on the Western front, but that would be to forget that in the last weeks of the conflict, violent fighting continued between the Axis forces to Soviet invaders. For example, on April 15, the city of Vienna finally fell into the hands of the Red Army. A provisional government was immediately established there, which officially marked the secession of the country from what remains of the German Third Reich. However, what seems to hold the world’s attention with regard to the war on the eastern front lies in the advance of the Soviet forces towards Berlin, advance which is indeed moving forward from April 16. The Soviets reach the suburbs of Berlin. Two days later, the Germans caught in the city realize they’re surrounded on at least three sides. They’re now fighting in the capital itself. Berlin, at the end of April 1945, constitutes probably, with Stalingrad in 1942, the scene of the most violent urban fighting of World War II. They fight in the streets, through the broken walls of the buildings, they machine-gun each other underground between two metro stations and in the manure of sewers. The civilians, who also fight in the same way as the soldiers, form barricades with everything that comes to hand: cars, destroyed tanks, furniture, and so on! The fights seem to reach a paroxysm of violence around the famous door of Brandenburg and, without too many surprises, around the Reichstag, the parliament and seat of the chancellery. Feeling the end approaching, but still anxious to show that he’s indeed in charge –in what seems to be a mark of a certain denial of reality–, Hitler orders General S. S. Felix Steiner to launch a counter-offensive north of Berlin with units that only exist on paper! General Steiner refuses because the lack of manpower. Hitler becomes mad with rage! He claims the head of General SS. and takes the opportunity to shoot on all his staff. The Nazi leader also makes a first declaration that the war will be lost and that he hears, paradoxically perhaps and as I mentioned previously, personally lead the defense of Berlin. He makes an oath in this regard, just as he plans to kill himself in his bunker in the event of the inevitable. Nevertheless, some German counter-attacks are attempted on April 24 in different sectors of Berlin, but without success. On the 27th, the German capital is now considered to be completely surrounded. It seems impossible for the Germans to get in or out! This is normal, you’ll tell me, especially if we consider the forces involved. It’s estimated that at least 1.5 million Soviet soldiers were present at the battle Berlin final against about 750,000 German fighters, but for the very defense of the capital, the Germans could only field a meager contingent of about 45,000 German fighters and of different nationalities, plus to the 40,000 soldiers of the Volkssturm, the police forces and the Hitler Youth. When the Battle of Berlin officially ended, around May 2 1945, the Soviets mourn the loss of about 81,000 soldiers killed or missing, 280,000 wounded, while the Germans have no less than 90,000 of their own fallen in action and 220,000 wounded. To these losses, the Germans must also consider that at least 480,000 of their soldiers are taken prisoner by the Soviets and that at least 20,000 Berliners are dead during these clashes. While the capital of the Third Reich is crumbling under the boots of the Red Army, elsewhere, on the Eastern front, events are also jostling. On May 1, there’s some confusion in Germany regarding the vacancy of power occasioned by Hitler’s death. Indeed, one of the defense commanders in the capital, General Hans Krebs tries to negotiate with the Soviets the surrender of the Berlin garrison. The catch is that General Krebs doesn’t have permission from the new Chancellor Joseph Goebbels to negotiate such an unconditional surrender. Now, a sign that the confusion reign, this power vacuum appears to be very short-lived. On the same day, May 1, and believe it or not, Goebbels and his wife murdered their six children, probably by feeding them cyanide before they slept, and they then commit suicide. Yes, you heard right: they murdered their six children! The next day, the Soviets capture the Reichstag and they hoist their flag in its peak. This highly symbolic catch marks the official end of the Battle of Berlin, just as another commander of the garrison, General Helmuth Weidling, surrenders unconditionally to the Soviets, because he no longer considers himself bound by Goebbels’ orders given the latter’s death. The days following the fall of Berlin in May 1945 saw further clashes take place on the eastern front, albeit brief. From May 6 to 11, the Czechoslovakian capital of Prague is the scene of what can be considered as the last major offensive of the war in Europe. The Soviets attack the capital at the same time as an insurrection among the population, the Germans quickly realize that resistance is no longer useful. Czechoslovakia is about to be fully liberated in turn. What remains of the German forces on the Eastern front, namely theoretical numbers of about 1 million men, surrendered unconditionally to Soviet troops, who thus take about 850,000 prisoners, the rest of the German troops being killed on the run to the West or missing. At the same time as the end of the war on the Western Front, German troops in the East officially capitulated on May 8, 1945, during a ceremony demanded by the Soviets. It’s the German general Wilhelm Keitel who signs for his country, acting thus under the orders of the President of the Reich, Admiral Donitz. This is the end of the war on the Eastern front and, suddenly, of the war in Europe! Of course, with the end of the war in Europe, they have reason to rejoice, but the mainland was on fire and sword for more than five years! However, many problems of all kinds persist. I bring you back on the domestic and diplomatic fronts, because certain elements are to be taken into consideration at the end of the European war and without forgetting that they’re still fighting in the Pacific. On June 5, the Allies victorious over Germany finally agree to divide the country and its capital Berlin into four zones of occupation, in accordance with what had been negotiated in Yalta. A few weeks later, on June 26, was signed in San Francisco, United States, the Charter of the United Nations. This is the founding text of the United Nations, which defines the purposes and principles of the new international organization. The UN aspires to maintain international peace and security, to uphold the right, to raise the question of social, economic and political problems, while as to uphold human rights, without distinction as to race, language, sex, or religion. But when the UN is set up, the war isn’t over in the Pacific and the organization of the world still remains to be redefined. Meanwhile, in America, on July 16, an atomic test codenamed Trinity is driven to the USA, specifically to New Mexico. We assist in the most great secrecy to a first detonation of a nuclear charge as part of the Manhattan Project. The Americans are about to have their first atomic weapon! On July 26, this time in Great Britain, the country is experiencing a changing of the guard. Indeed, Clement Atlee’s Labor Party came to power and the new British leader immediately flew to Potsdam, in Germany. He’ll join his defeated opponent Winston Churchill there when the important inter-allied conference. The aim of the Potsdam conference is first to fix the fate of the defeated enemy nations, in what appears to be a logical follow-up to the previous inter-allied conferences in Tehran in 1943 and to that, more recent, from Yalta. The United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union agree on the idea of the unconditional surrender of Japan and there’s also discussion on how to administer post-war Germany. In other words, they discuss the reorganization of the post-war world, just as the more technical question of the Germany dismemberment, which roughly loses about 25% of its pre-war territory. The defeated Germany is also the subject of an imposing disarmament process and denazification of its institutions and society, and as I mentioned previously, prosecutions were initiated against Nazi war criminals. What emerges from Potsdam is the portrait of a Germany more divided than ever, the country is literally cut in two: an Eastern bloc and a West bloc. It’s a division of the world and Stalin suddenly demands that millions of Germans from the East and from the territories of Eastern Europe be expelled to the West. Again, for the Germans, the aftermath of the war will be difficult. Also during the Potsdam conference on July 24, the new American president Harry Truman leaks information to the effect that the USA has an atomic bomb, probably in order to keep the Soviets at bay with regard to their politico-military ambitions. It’s in a way on this last element that the Potsdam conference ends. In their final statement, the Allies call on Japan to surrender without condition, failing which the Japanese empire will face certain destruction! And when the conference ended, the USSR, on August 8, 1945, declared war in Japan. With that in mind, let’s now return to the Pacific theater of operations, the only theater where the war continued in that summer of 1945. On July 5, the American Commander-in-Chief, General Douglas MacArthur, publicly announced the liberation of the Philippines. The next month, and in accordance with their commitment made in Potsdam, the Soviet forces begin military operations and invade Manchuria, part of Mongolia, part of North Korea and the Kuril Islands located between the USSR and Japan. But these recent events are of relatively secondary importance, insofar as what holds the attention is the imminent deployment of the atomic weapon against Japan. Yes, the decision is made: at least one atomic bomb will be dropped against the Japanese empire. The war must end! In the greatest secrecy, all the components necessary for the assembly of this first atomic bomb are ready. The mission of dropping of this bomb is entrusted to a squadron of American heavy bombers long-range B-29 type. On August 6, 1945, and despite the ultimatum that the Allies had sent to Japan at Potsdam, the first atomic bomb of history, a bomb enriched with uranium, is dropped on the city of Hiroshima. Nicknamed Little Boy, this relatively large bomb is thrown from the bomber B-29 named Enola Gay. It strikes the heart of Hiroshima, which is a major seaport, as well as an important industrial center which houses an Japanese army headquarters. And the result is appalling, even apocalyptic. The immense mushroom of fire and radioactivity kills no less than 70,000 civilians and some 20,000 soldiers in an instant, this figure doesn’t count the tens of thousands of other people who will die in the next few weeks and the next few months, because the bomb does not only kill and burn its victims, all buildings and infrastructure located in the immediate radius of its point of fall are systematically destroyed. The world discovers all the horror of this weapon of mass destruction. And this isn’t finished. Three days later, on August 9, a second bomb fell on Nagasaki, also an important Japanese seaport and naval base. This bomb, nicknamed Fat Man, which is enriched with plutonium, causes more than 80,000 civilian victims. The many civilians not killed instantly die in the next weeks. The pain caused by the severe burns and the radiation is humanly unbearable, not to mention the diseases that may develop and whose effects aren’t still scientifically well documented in 1945. On August 10, the day after the fall of the second atomic bomb against Nagasaki, the Japanese government sends a message to the Allies, they accept the terms of the declaration of Potsdam with respect to capitulation, but on the condition that the terms imposed in no way affect the prerogatives of the emperor as sovereign. The Allies accept this condition, but specifying that the future status of the emperor still remains to be determined, first it’s necessary to impose on the Japanese a peace without any other conditions. However, a problem arises: not all Japanese leaders seem neither to want nor to accept the capitulation. On August 14 and 15, senior soldiers ranks and civilian officials of the Ministry of War and the Imperial Guard attempt a coup, but they fail to rally enough support. On August 15, Emperor Hiro-Hito will issue a statement on the radio announcing Japan’s unconditional surrender. The watchword comes directly from the Emperor, it must be followed, obeyed. The date of August 15, 1945 in the Pacific is the equivalent of May 8 in Europe. It’s the Allied Victory Day in this theater of operations. We know now that the war is virtually over, but it’s necessary to ensure the transition towards peace. In the wake of his message on the radio to the nation, Emperor Hiro-Hito orders his soldiers to stop fighting completely on August 16. The next day, US President Harry Truman issued General Order No. 1, which calls for Japan’s surrender. Presented by General MacArthur to the Japanese representatives so it could in turn be handed over to their soldiers, the order was given to all units to surrender to allied commanders facing them by September 2. What’s more, Truman’s order details areas of Japan’s future occupation by the allied troops, while specifying that Korea will be divided between two zones, i.e., a northern zone and a southern zone bounded by the 38th parallel. Curiously, perhaps, the political and military situation in the Pacific theater seems much more chaotic than that which marked the end of the war in Europe. On August 19, for example, hostilities officially broke out –and finally, some will say– between Chinese nationalists and communists. China is entering a civil war whose outcome is uncertain as the Japanese evacuate the mainland and all of the occupied territories of Southeast Asia. In late August, US General MacArthur officially takes control of the Japanese government in Tokyo. Japan is well and truly over and events continue to hustle! The Philippines declares its independence from Japan and Vietnam does the same with France. In this case, Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the Vietnamese communist forces, publishes on September 2 a declaration of independence of Vietnam, but which isn’t recognized by the United States and even less by France. For now, the world holds that World War II is about to end. Indeed, on September 2, 1945, the acts of Japan’s capitulation were signed on board the American battleship USS Missouri, in Tokyo Bay, in the presence of delegates from allied nations and political and military representatives of Japan. This twenty-minute ceremony is broadcast live all over the world. Japanese Foreign Minister and the Chief of the Army General Staff sign the documents on behalf of their government and the Allied representatives, starting with General MacArthur, do the same. World War II is over! It now remains to make peace, to build the peace. But straight away, what seems to have been the deadliest war in history fails to convince human beings to stop killing each other. Elsewhere in the world, the end of the World War II obviously marked a transitions period of all kinds. These transitions, whether political, military, economic or social will not be easy. In the former occupied territories, we’re witnessing many settling of accounts between those who resisted foreign occupation forces and those who openly collaborated with these. This is particularly the case in France, where the former collaborationist Prime Minister Pierre Laval is executed by the Provisional Government of the French Republic on October 15, 1945. But that’s not all. They search also to settle accounts with former war criminals, whether German or Japanese. To take only the case of the Nazis, the defining event of the end of the war is unquestionably the opening, on November 20, of the Nuremberg trials which officially end the following year, on October 1, 1946. In Nuremberg are judged, during various sessions in the form of a military tribunal, 24 of the main leading figures associated to the Nazi regime. These trials and court sessions are intended to shed light on the crimes attributed to the defendants. Prosecutors who represent the main Allied powers that fought Germany seek to establish the level of involvement of the accused, to determine to what extent whether or not they participated in the Holocaust and other mass war crimes. In addition to being charged with war crimes, the 24 Nazis involved are also charged conspiracy, crimes against peace and crimes against humanity. The Nuremberg trials are the first international court in history. Their progress and their verdicts contribute to the creation of international law on war crimes, as well as on crimes against humanity. Several of the defendants are found guilty and the sentences are increasingly severe, ranging from the death penalty to life imprisonment. The Nuremberg trials will lead to the creation of the International Criminal Court and will be a first opportunity to discuss the now well-known and admitted term to « genocide ». We’re now at the conclusion. Yes, the time for assessments has arrived. As you could see it during these episodes devoted to each years of the conflict, the World War II left behind a heavy toll with various consequences, consequences that are still being felt today. By its duration, the number of belligerent states, the involvement of civilians in both industries than directly on the front line, the use of new weapons and the industrialization of death by policies of mass extermination, the war of 1939-1945 not only marked an entire generation, but also those that follow. And when the guns fall silent, many questions remain unanswered. For instance, what could the world look like after 1945? How can we rebuild peace after such a long, devastating and traumatic? Is peace possible? Is it possible ? The casualties alone are beyond comprehension. Numbers will never be perfectly established, but it’s believed that from 1939 to 1945, between 50 and 60 million people died, whether on the front line, under aerial bombardment and in the concentration camps. Plus to the deaths, we must add to this heavy toll the displacement of populations, whether voluntary or not, in the context of exoduses, mass deportations or border changes. For Europe alone, these population movements are number about 30 million people. And it’s not over. The World War II leaves behind territories ravaged, devastated and collapsed economies. The destruction is considerable in all theaters of operations. We see that Japan has some of its cities completely destroyed under the blows of the new atomic weapon. But it’s in Europe where the material destruction is the greatest, more two million tons of bombs were dropped on European cities, almost all German cities must be rebuilt, as well as elsewhere on the continent, whether in Russia, Poland or France. It’s likely that the USSR alone suffered the most material destruction and human resources directly linked to military operations. The Soviet Union records alone at least a third of the casualties of World War II and saw the bulk combat operations in Europe take place on its territory. Civilian populations have suffered from the rationing of raw materials, particularly relating to food and medical supplies. Again, the end of the war in the former occupied or defeated territories doesn’t in any way mean the end of rationing. The hardships continue. As we saw in 1914-1918 -right here- the 1939-1945 war in turn brought about a sort of “moral shock”, i.e., psychological traumas which constitute only the tip of the dramas actually experienced by contemporaries. For example, the war marks the consciences because, as I said, of the number without precedent of civilian casualties, and also because of the methods used to kill the most people possible. The world discovered in 1945 the full extent of the horror of the Nazi concentration camp system. And as if that wasn’t enough, the world finds, in the same year, that humanity can very well self-destruct with the new atomic weapon, which suggests that people will have to pay for committing all these horrors, all these crimes. As we have just seen, the Allies undertake the trial of the vanquished, half of the defendants of Nuremberg are thus condemned to death for their role in the Jewish genocide. Note also that in Japan, 25 people are also judged for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Heads are rolling again. We have also seen that the organization of peace and the redrawing of world borders will not be a simple or obvious task. The Yalta and Potsdam impose harsh conditions on defeated enemies, but also promise tools to prevent another outbreak of World War III. Germany is now militarily occupied and Europe split in two, Japan is also occupied in the context of an unconditional surrender, these countries should submit and have their borders redrawn, especially in the case of Germany. It’s therefore important to rethink post-war international relations. The end of the World War II saw the birth of the UN, which should -it’s hoped- replace the defunct League of Nations of 1920, but above all have coercive means to protect, even impose peace. A new world order is now in motion. Old Europe is on the decline, an accelerating decline as almost the entire continent is destroyed. Britain’s financial power comes out weakened, just like France which after its defeat of 1940 doesn’t manage to regain the rank of great power that it once occupied after the World War I. What’s more, this weakness of the European colonial powers encourages the rise of independence movements in the colonies, as we saw with Vietnam, for example. And while the former colonies assert more and more to detach themselves from the motherland, the world is witnessing the emergence of two great powers: the USA and the Soviet Union. In the case of the USA, they emerge from the conflict strengthened, both militarily and economically. The country’s industrial production goes from simple to double between 1939 and 1945 and they’re the main donors of the allied coalition. Militarily, their armies are numerous and they have, for the moment, the monopoly of the atomic bomb. As far as the Soviet Union is concerned, the latter also has great prestige, especially from a military point of view. The epic struggle of his armies in Stalingrad in 1942 represents for the world the first real defeat inflicted on the Hitler regime. The territory of the Soviet Union in 1945 takes an incredible expansion and its influence, if not his authority, remains incontestable in the territories liberated by his armies. But the Allies in 1945 are no longer united. From the Potsdam conference, we have seen, mistrust begins to set in as troops converge on the Nazi capital. Brits and Americans are worried about conquests of the Red Army in Eastern Europe, in particular because Churchill and Truman suspect Stalin of being unwilling to hold free elections in the liberated territories. Liberated Europe becomes a field of disputes between the great victorious powers. The grand coalition that fought Nazism for so long is no longer what it was, it’s now showing its limits, once the enemy is defeated, everyone resumes control of its strategic agenda. A kind of Iron Curtain will end up being installed between the former allies of the East and the West, a curtain that isn’t only political, but physically very real, the world is divided into two camps. The Cold War sets in. If you want to know more, you go see, we made a complete video on the Berlin Wall. In the meantime, that’s it for today. It’s over for this long series on the history of World War II. I hope you liked it! In any case, I wouldn’t tell you that we spent hours there just filming, writing, editing. I must thank Carl Pépin with whom I worked on this huge series, we wanted to offer it to everyone to also understand the trauma that was the World War II. Its said that history is useful, because it allows us not to make the same mistakes again and when we know our history, we’re able to consider our present and our future a little better, at least, I hope. And on my side, I’d like to dedicate this series to my great-grandfather who fought in both wars, including the World War II -you have a photo of him here- His name was Maurice Desfontaines. In short, I dedicate this series to him. I’m Laurent Turcot from L’Histoire will tell us -I’m exhausted, I don’t know if you are too- If you have liked what you saw, you know what to do: liking, sharing, bring the series to life. It’s over for today and if you want another series, comment below, tell us which one you want? Come on, I’ll see you next time. Bye! Subtitles: salvadorarmandoul@gmail.com .

Déroulement de la vidéo:

0.24 Today I start the first episode of
a new series dedicated to the history
0.24 of World War II.
0.24 As I did during the series dedicated to
the Great War of 1914-1918, right here,
0.24 I&;ll explore the ins and outs of a conflict
that&;s, unfortunately, the dreadful
0.24 logical continuation of a butchery which
one can wonder if it really ended
0.24 in 1918.
0.24 Indeed, the question is legitimate, because
the peace signed at Versailles in 1919 is
0.24 only ephemeral, without ever really solving
the political and economic problems
0.24 and social welfare of European states, it&;s even
claimed that it contains the ingredients
0.24 to fuel another war of unprecedented magnitude.
0.24 And as many of you have followed and
commented on my series on 1914-18, I
0.24 this time invites you to explore the
World War II on a similar model,
0.24 that&;s, year after year and in
all theaters of operations.
0.24 Whether on land, at sea, in the air,
in the factories, in the streets
0.24 cities, in the occupied territories and
even in the death camps, nothing
0.24 must elude us in order to better
understand what really happened.
0.24 Let&;s go! Today on History will tell us, the
World War II with, firstly, the year 1939.
0.24 The World War II is a conflict on a
planetary scale that officially lasts
0.24 from September 1939 to September 1945. The vast
majority of States in the world at the time
0.24 participate in it within two large
opposing alliances: the Axis forces
0.24 against the Allies.
0.24 But why did the world go up in flames
again in 1939? Did they not retain the
0.24 terrible lessons of the 1914-1918 war?
The tens of millions of soldiers and
0.24 civilians who died there, did they not
convince humanity to stop these
0.24 tragedies? Nope?
0.24 To fully understand the events that
interest us in 1939, it&;s imperative
0.24 to take a few steps back in time,
i.e., to go back twenty years.
0.24 Remember: the guns of the Great War
ceasedto thunder on November 11, 1918.
0.24 Central Powers, with Germany in the lead,
evacuate the enemy territories they
0.24 occupied since 1914. We then speak
of an armistice which is then
0.24 a ceasefire until a lasting peace is
negotiated, but the future seems
0.24 uncertain.
0.24 As the Paris peace conference opened in January
1919, which was supposed to put an end to the
0.24 conflict, the same month, Germany enters
into full Spartacist revolution.
0.24 Kaiser Wilhelm II is forced to abdicate
his throne and the new Weimar Republic,
0.24 whose representatives negotiate peace with
the Allies, tries to establish his authority
0.24 in the midst of the various factions that
fuel the inferno of the revolution.
0.24 Even worse! Beyond the revolutionary troubles
in Germany, one can even say that the war
0.24 in Europe continues. The sound of cannons
is still heard. But where? And why?
0.24
0.24 First, the beginning of 1919
saw a fully independent Poland
0.24 attack by Russia in the midst of the
Bolshevik revolution, which only ends
0.24 in 1921 with the Polish victory.
Also in 1919, in March, is founded
0.24 in Moscow the Third Communist International,
which seeks to rally to the new Soviet regime
0.24 the various communist parties in
Russia as elsewhere in the world.
0.24 However, during the summer, after
negotiating for months, they finally manage
0.24 to sign a peace agreement with Germany
by concluding the Treaty of Versailles,
0.24 and despite that there are fighting elsewhere
in Europe, let&;s say that this treaty officially puts
0.24 end to the Great War of 1914. I say
"officially", the word matter.
0.24 The Allied forces of the time therefore
won a victory that radically changed
0.24 the world map and the dynamics
of international relations.
0.24 But with the peace of Versailles, can we
really say that Europe and the world can
0.24 respite? One can reasonably doubt it, unfortunately.
0.24 For example, there are many revolutions
localized to certain countries or regions in
0.24 the last weeks of the Great War and the early 1920s.
0.24 These revolutions, politically more to the left,
are taking place in Germany –as we come
0.24 to see it– but also in Poland,
Finland, Spain, Hungary and
0.24 Austria, to name but a few examples.
0.24 Most of these revolutionary movements
fail, but the case of Russia in the
0.24 1920s is special, since communism
manages to establish itself there.
0.24 Note also that the end of the Great War
consequently led to the creation of new
0.24 States –especially in Eastern Europe–
some of which were once provinces
0.24 of fallen empires.
0.24 So, conflicts are raging in Eastern
Europe, but also in colonies of the
0.24 British and French empires, where people
yearn for more recognition from
0.24 metropolises with regard to their
participation in the Great War.
0.24 The end of the hostilities also marks important
changes at the social, economic and financial
0.24 level, the war is literally weighing down
the public finances of the former large
0.24 powers.
0.24 Great Britain, for example, can&;t
immediately reimburse the USA
0.24 the war loans taken out, just as the
coffers are empty in a Germany
0.24 who must pay the reparations imposed
by the Treaty of Versailles.
0.24 Moreover, many Germans find the
situation unacceptable, if
0.24 although they flatly refuse to pay. What&;s
more -as if the situation weren&;t
0.24 serious enough- Germany experienced
a period of hyperinflation in the
0.24 early 1920s. Money loses its value
so much that you almost have to be
0.24 millionaire to buy even a coffee!
0.24 But if some Germans opt for a path
of passive resistance, others, more
0.24 extremists, don&;t hesitate to take up arms.
0.24 The most notorious case remains the failed
putsch orchestrated by members of Nazi
0.24 party in November 1923 in Munich:
the famous Beer All Putsch.
0.24 On this occasion, influential members of the Nazi
Party, including Adolf Hitler and General
0.24 Erich Ludendorff, a former commander
during World War I, provoked a
0.24 coup to seize power in Munich, Bavaria.
0.24 The clashes between the police and
the Nazis ended in the death of a
0.24 twenty of them, but the events give
the Nazi Party and Hitler publicity
0.24 unprecedented.
0.24 Despite everything, the beginning of the 1920s
marked relative economic prosperity in
0.24 already industrialized countries, particularly
in Western Europe and North America,
0.24 middle class continues to rise and
0.24 technologies known before the war ended up being
more accessible, such as the telephone,
0.24 cars and radio.
0.24 It&;s also to dwell on the clothing style of
the people of the time, especially among the
0.24 women who now dress in shorter and more casual clothes.
0.24 In some countries, moreover, women obtain
the right to vote in the context
0.24 of the end of hostilities, which constitutes
an important advance on the social level.
0.24 However, in the popular imagination,
these "crazy" and more or less
0.24 glorious years, which are the 20s, ended abruptly
in October 1929 when the Wall Street stock market
0.24 in New York "crash" completely
-you&;ll see, we made a video
0.24 on it-
0.24 In fact, this break in the global
economy is only the first step
0.24 or phase of what&;s becoming a long
economic depression that characterizes
0.24 essentially the 1930s.
0.24 The crisis begins in the USA, but
spreads just as quickly to reach a
0.24 world summit around 1933. Almost no
state in the world is spared. Trade
0.24 international falls dramatically, suddenly
leading some States to live in a
0.24 quasi-economic autarky.
0.24 So the end of the Great War brings its
challenges and questions for the future.
0.24 One can think of the growing
influence of the USA in business
0.24 international organizations, as well as to the
legitimate hopes in the work of the new Society
0.24 of Nations, the League of Nations.
0.24 Precisely: will this famous League of Nations
be able to bring the States to settle their
0.24 disputes peacefully, if not to normalize
their international relations,
0.24 without systematically resorting to the
force of arms? We can doubt it.
0.24 Remember that this organization was born
in 1920 and that it seeks to prevent
0.24 future conflicts by emphasizing the
principles of collective security,
0.24 disarmament and above all negotiation.
0.24 The League of Nations seeks as best they can to resolve
certain conflicts and to bring back a semblance
0.24 of peace, especially in what appears to be
a necessary normalization of relations
0.24 international after the Great War.
0.24 However, the international organization
fails to prevent the outbreak
0.24 of some of the wars in the 1930s, nor
to block the road to expansionist aims
0.24 fascist regimes.
0.24 But the SDN is involved in the conclusion of
the Locarno agreements of 1925 which allow
0.24 to regularize relations between the old
enemies of the Great War who were
0.24 France and Germany, in addition
to stabilizing their borders.
0.24 The SDN can also serve as a tool for
promoting what can be called the
0.24 "illegality of war”. Clearly, we must
conceive of peace and war under other
0.24 angles, certainly bolder and more innovative angles,
0.24 and making war illegal may seem daring.
0.24 Failing this, the future belligerents must
at least be forced to prioritize the negotiation,
0.24 then to no longer use certain prohibited
weapons, such as poison gas
0.24 that traumatized veterans of the Great War.
0.24 The League of Nations is also part of an era
where its wants to put an end to what we
0.24 can now qualify as "secret diplomacy", i.e., this diplomacy
0.24 that characterized international relations
before 1914. From now on, its should bet
0.24 on collective and public bargaining. Unfortunately
for the League of Nations, its main
0.24 handicap is that, unlike the United
Nations, it doesn&;t have
0.24 a military tool enabling it to apply
its resolutions in practice.
0.24 Moreover, the League of Nations only partially
succeeds in promoting the idea of ​​collective
0.24 disarmament, this issue was particularly
central during the interwar period.
0.24 Above all, states with expansionist
aims like Germany, Italy, Japan
0.24 and the USSR don&;t care to see potential
conflicts appeased by diplomatic
0.24 discussions, and even less to remain in a
passive attitude concerning the question
0.24 of disarmament and demilitarization.
0.24 Moreover, it must be admitted, the
international situation is quite anarchic
0.24 to impose peace there, the case of Russia
is particularly flagrant in this sense.
0.24 Since 1917, the country has been in the midst of
a civil war and the new Bolshevik power which
0.24 finally imposed itself around 1922 aroused the
highest suspicions among democratic countries.
0.24 Russia then becomes the Soviet Union, the USSR,
and the communist dictatorship, or rather
0.24 stalinist, is now a reality. The
new political regime stands out
0.24 by its brutality and by a cult
of the dictator&;s personality,
0.24 and you probably see me coming, who
says “crisis” says “open doors” to
0.24 totalitarian political ideologies,
which undermine political stability
0.24 of the faltering liberal democracies.
Exactly: can the democracies of this world
0.24 survive in the face of the rise and certain
popularity of totalitarian ideologies such as
0.24 communism and fascism?
0.24 Can they survive the economic and financial crises,
of which that of 1929 turns out to be
0.24 by far the most terrible and which call into
question the very foundations of capitalism?
0.24 In the midst of an economic crisis, who is still
0.24 confidence in legitimately elected
democratic governments? Who?
0.24 Shouldn&;t we instead put in place
iron-fisted governments, like
0.24 is this the case in the USSR? Governments
that will know, by more expeditious means
0.24 and brutal, provide simple solutions to complex problems?
0.24 Contrary to the communist path, some
states provide political responses
0.24 much more nationalist and ideologically
conservative in substance, but just as
0.24 authoritarian and brutal in form. Because
if the world can believe that a
0.24 totalitarian ideology like that of communism
seems to be confined to Russia alone,
0.24 that would be to ignore the rise of
fascism, which too, as an ideology
0.24 politician, seeks to solve problems in his own way.
0.24 The first case that made an impression occurred in
Italy in October 1922. Although the country
0.24 fought alongside the Allies until 1918,
Italy is literally dissatisfied
0.24 fallout from the Treaty of Versailles.
It was then that an army veteran
0.24 named Benito Mussolini and his movement
of "black shirts" march on Rome, the
0.24 fascist leader is entrusted with power and doesn&;t
take long to establish a nationalist and
0.24 authoritarian political regime.
0.24 The other example of a “democratic” country
that sinks into dictatorship is, of course,
0.24 Germany. Adolf Hitler, also a
veteran of the Great War, ended up
0.24 by various political maneuvers, by obtaining
from the German parliament the full powers
0.24 in January 1933. The Nazi regime is set up.
0.24 Hitler doesn&;t hesitate to eliminate anyone
who is likely to stand in his way,
0.24 he gets rid of old allies like
the S.A. during the infamous
0.24 Night of the Long Knives in 1934.
The next year, Hitler enacted
0.24 the Nuremberg Laws which, broadly speaking, institutionalize
discrimination against Jews and provide
0.24 a legal framework for systematic persecution
against them. Yes, you understood well,
0.24 it&;s now legal to attack Jews.
0.24 Hitler goes even further with regard to
the Jews, since they are victims,
0.24 in 1938, pogroms during the terrible
Kristallnacht in which synagogues
0.24 and businesses are set on fire.
Jewish victims number in the thousands
0.24 in terms of dead, wounded and deported to
concentration camps. The Night of
0.24 Cristal of November 1938 seems to be the
nightmarish prelude to what awaits the Jews
0.24 at the time of the Holocaust during the war years.
0.24 A bit like in the Soviet Union, the Nazi
dictatorship ended up penetrating all spheres
0.24 of German society at the time. In addition
to advocating nationalist policies
0.24 and expansionists, the Nazi regime of
Adolf Hitler was openly racist and
0.24 anti-semitic.
0.24 The rise of fascist regimes in Germany
and Italy is extremely worrying,
0.24 in particular because these regimes have
clearly expansionist political aims.
0.24 Moreover, the Nazi regime always seems to push
the audacity a little further, for example,
0.24 Hitler orders his troops, in what appears
to be a clear violation of the clauses
0.24 of the Treaty of Versailles, to militarily
reoccupy the Rhineland in March 1936.
0.24 This region rich in natural resources
and highly industrialized located near
0.24 borders with Belgium and France makes
it a clearly strategic sector
0.24 for the remilitarization of Germany.
0.24 Also in 1936, Germany and Japan signed
the Anti-Comintern Pact, i.e.,
0.24 the anti-Communist pact officially directed
against the Communist International, and in
0.24 which the signatories swear to lend each other
assistance in a eventual war against the USSR
0.24 and its allies. A bit later,
in March 1938, Hitler made
0.24 to march his troops on Austria, in
what&;s called the Anschluss, i.e.,
0.24 the pure and simple annexation of the country
by Germany. Nazi forces march on Vienna without
0.24 a single shot.
0.24 It now appears obvious that Hitler seeks
to reunite under his regime all
0.24 German-speaking populations. Moreover,
still in 1938, in September, Germany
0.24 is hosting a conference in Munich, this
conference leads to an agreement
0.24 important to Hitler. Western powers,
especially Great Britain and France,
0.24 agree that Germany should annex the Sudetenland,
which is part of Czechoslovakia
0.24 populated by many German speakers.
0.24 All in exchange for peace. But for
how much longer? Nothing seems to stop
0.24 Hitler!
0.24 Once again taking advantage of the desire of
Western powers to safeguard peace at all
0.24 price, he orders, in what is a clear violation
of the Munich agreements, that be occupied
0.24 and annexed Czech regions of Bohemia and Moravia-Silesia.
0.24 As in Italy, Germany under Hitler
doesn&;t accept binding clauses
0.24 and humiliating conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.
The policy of relaxation desired by Great Britain
0.24 and France is a failure, the new war seems
0.24 working on.
0.24 In fact, can we say that there is any kind of
peace after 1918? It&;s said that officially
0.24 the World War II began in 1939, but
the facts show that there were fighting in
0.24 several regions of the world well before that date.
0.24 For example, Mussolini&;s Fascist Italy
set out to conquer Ethiopia in 1935
0.24 and 1936, thereby provoking a scandal
within the League of Nations and in
0.24 most of international public opinion.
0.24 The imposition of an embargo against the Mussolini
regime, particularly on oil, didn&;t
0.24 little effect and doesn&;t slow down the
march of the fascists against this Ethiopia,
0.24 which is then one of the few
independent African countries.
0.24 In addition, from 1936 to 1939, Spain was
confronted with a terrible civil war
0.24 in a coup orchestrated by soldiers
under the leadership of General
0.24 Franco. Victorious, Franco set up an equally
nationalist, conservative dictatorship
0.24 and tinged with a strong Catholicism.
0.24 In the Far East, Japan benefits from
chronic political instability
0.24 in China to pursue an expansionist
policy during the 1930s.
0.24 Japan notably conquered Manchuria
there in 1931, following the
0.24 so-called the Mukden incident, which
is actually an railway facilities
0.24 self-sabotage deliberately orchestrated
by Japan to force war
0.24 with China.
0.24 Subsequently, the belligerents clash along
the Chinese coastal provinces
0.24 at the end of the decade, just as the
Japanese armies fight the Soviet forces
0.24 for territories located in the
Mongolia region of present-day.
0.24 This Sino-Japanese war which began in 1931
ended up calming down somewhat in
0.24 over the years, but it picked up
again in the summer of 1937.
0.24 The fighting is particularly fierce in
Shanghai, as well as in Nanjing, where
0.24 the Japanese massacre tens of thousands
of Chinese among military
0.24 and civilians. Moreover, with
the scale of the conquests
0.24 and massacres carried out by the Japanese army
in Chinese territory, some historians
0.24 come to believe that the World War II
could have started as soon as
0.24 the beginning of the 1930s, instead
of the date of 1939 traditionally used.
0.24 And just like Hitler did in Germany,
the Japanese leaders ended up
0.24 by establishing in their country and in conquered
territories a regime of military dictatorship
0.24 openly expansionist, nationalist and racist.
0.24 Consequently, we retain that the world at the
end of the 1930s is far from aspiring
0.24 to collective peace as envisaged by the
League of Nations, which is literally
0.24 powerless to establish any
comprehensive peace in the world.
0.24 In this context, can we think that the rise
of fascism and communism could mark
0.24 a decisive step towards another all-out war?
0.24 As we see in Italy and Germany, fascism
doesn&;t hesitate to mobilize
0.24 its profit the anger of certain individuals
or classes of society left behind
0.24 by economic and financial misery. Fascism
is a movement that take away from
0.24 liberal democracy, not hesitating
to ridicule its failures to
0.24 solve societal problems, while
attacking religious minorities
0.24 and ethnic groups, which most of
the time serve as scapegoats.
0.24 In short, it&;s certain that the world is once
again heading towards a generalized catastrophe.
0.24 Returned in 1939, doubt is no longer possible.
0.24 Imagine the situation then. We&;re at the
beginning of 1939. We can now say that
0.24 Germany is reunited and expanding, as Italy and Japan.
0.24 The alliance between fascist regimes
0.24 is becoming more and more precise. Italy
ends up joining the anti-comintern pact
0.24 and signs with Germany, in May,
the Pact of Steel, which is downright
0.24 a political and military alliance.
0.24 But the height of the height lies in the
conclusion of a secret agreement between Germany
0.24 of Hitler and Stalin&;s Soviet Union on August.
0.24 Imagine! You have two totalitarian regimes
with completely opposite political ideas
0.24 who secretly sign a non-aggression
pact just days before the officially
0.24 start of World War II!
0.24 This pact called the Ribbentrop-Molotov
pact, named after the foreign ministers
0.24 German and Soviet, concerns the division and
then the occupation of territories in Europe
0.24 East once hostilities begin. Clearly, the
pact provides for the division and then
0.24 the joint occupation of Poland by
German and Soviet troops, and
0.24 the Soviet occupation of the Baltic countries.
0.24 What&;s more -and this is fundamental for the
Germans- the agreement removes the threat
0.24 of a Soviet attack on Germany at the time
of the invasion of Poland. Thereby,
0.24 Germany can have a free hand on the western
front in the event of a declaration
0.24 of war coming from France and Great Britain.
0.24 Now that the threat of war with the USSR
has passed, Hitler has his hands
0.24 free to decide where and when he&;ll
strike but it&;s an open secret, in
0.24 insofar as it seems obvious that
his next target is Poland.
0.24 All excuses are good to invade it, for
example, Hitler demands that be attached
0.24 to Germany the famous corridor that divides
the two states: the corridor of
0.24 Danzig. The municipality which itself
is supposed to have free city status,
0.24 is one of the claimed objectives.
0.24 To this end, and within the framework of the Ribbentrop-Molotov
pact, Hitler sent an ultimatum on August 30 to
0.24 Poland claiming the territories of the Polish
corridor and the city of Danzig. The ultimatum
0.24 remained unanswered and the German armies
mobilized on the Polish border.
0.24 The next day, the 31st, border incidents
fabricated from scratch by the Nazis
0.24 take place along the border with the aim
of making it appear that the Poles attacked
0.24 the Germans. The reality is quite different,
but Hitler&;s response turns out to be brutal.
0.24 Admittedly, war seems coming, but
international public opinion remains
0.24 shocked. War is now a reality, the
world is preparing for the worst.
0.24 Therefore, on September 1, 1939, German
soldiers stormed into Poland. The
0.24 World War II Begins!
0.24 I&;ll therefore analyze the main phases
of operations in 1939 according to the
0.24 different theaters. Let&;s see what&;s
happening first in Poland, during
0.24 of a military campaign that officially takes
place from September 1 to October 6,
0.24 1939.
0.24 The Germans have considerable numbers. In fact,
they bring together the vast majority
0.24 of their military resources available on that date.
0.24 We&;re talking about about 2 million soldiers
supported by nearly 10,000 guns, 2,800
0.24 tanks and nearly 2,500 aircraft.
Opposite, the Polish army manages to
0.24 mobilize 1 million men supported by
just over 4,000 guns, 200 tanks,
0.24 and 800 aircraft.
0.24 As you can see, the Germans seem
at first glance to have a
0.24 numerical advantage, but the Poles&; morale is
very good despite the circumstances, since they
0.24 defend the national territory, the
motherland. And I&;d like to tell you
0.24 how the German army performs in an
extraordinary way by resorting to
0.24 the Blitzkrieg tactic, i.e.,
this form of lightning war where
0.24 wonderfully the use of mechanized infantry,
state-of-the-art assault tanks and
0.24 an air force capable of supporting
land forces in all circumstances.
0.24 But the reality of the 1939 Polish
campaign for the Germans is quite
0.24 different. Admittedly, they have considerable
numbers and are still well trained
0.24 and equipped, but some caveats can be raised.
0.24 Obviously, the German economy produced
more and more military equipment during
0.24 the 1930s and these are relatively good quality.
0.24 Moreover, it&;s true that the Blitzkrieg,
even if not perfectly executed, could
0.24 drill major breaches in the Polish defenses,
to the point of dislocating the front
0.24 enemy in different places and even at critical moments.
0.24 Let&;s remember, however, that the economy of the
Third Reich in 1939 wasn&;t perfectly prepared
0.24 to what can be called “total war”.
0.24 At the time of invasion, for example,
ground units do not necessarily have
0.24 of all the vehicles they need and it is
reported that the ammunition reserves
0.24 are quite low at times.
0.24 The fact remains that the German
economy still manages to ensure
0.24 relatively good preparation of the
invading army, but the economy isn&;t
0.24 immediately capable of fueling a
long-lasting war. So, Poland
0.24 must be conquered quickly in order
that the economy blows a little.
0.24 Besides, Hitler didn&;t want to totally mobilize
the economy for the purposes of the war.
0.24 He does not want to do this despite the fact that
a war with England and France is inevitable
0.24 and that specialized resources must be provided
for the sole purpose of production
0.24 military.
0.24 The leader of the Reich and many of his generals
seem a little too proud, it&;s true, on
0.24 the excellent hierarchical and tactical organization
of the infantry divisions in charge
0.24 to lead the assault on Poland.
0.24 In addition to having numerical superiority,
the German divisions have a structure
0.24 more modern and efficient than their
Polish counterparts, they have
0.24 also better tanks, such as
the Panzer I, II, III and
0.24 IV. In accordance with the ideas of General Heinz
0.24 Guderian, thinker and developer of the
concept of Blitzkrieg, tanks and units
0.24 mechanized must be the spearhead to break
through the enemy front, then isolate
0.24 possible pockets of resistance.
0.24 The goal is always to confuse the
opponent, by ensuring that
0.24 can&;t reconstitute a solid and continuous
front line. The bulk of the army
0.24 essentially made up of foot units, must
follow the advance of mobile units
0.24 and finish off those famous
pockets of enemy resistance.
0.24 Whether on foot or mobile,
German units can also count
0.24 on the air force support, the Luftwaffe
under orders of Hermann Goering,
0.24 plus to clearing the sky of the enemy
aircraft presence with fighters such
0.24 the Messerschmitt BF-109, the Luftwaffe&;s
role was to break up and pulverize the
0.24 enemy supply convoys and lines of
communication. The dive bombers
0.24 Stuka play an important role in this regard,
0.24 like armored units, the role of aviation
is also to sow the seeds of
0.24 confusion and panic in the enemy ranks,
crippling his defensive capabilities.
0.24 The key to success is therefore
simple: speed and mobility!
0.24 Never mind, the first shots
of World War II in Europe
0.24 seem to have been fired by the
German navy, the Kriegsmarine.
0.24 Shells propelled by a ship along
the Polish coast near from Danzig
0.24 fall. more precisely against the locality
of Westerplatte, a little before
0.24 5 am, September 1, 1939.
0.24 Trapped, the Poles fought valiantly,
their army tries some counter-attacks,
0.24 but it&;s quickly overwhelmed on all
parts of the front going from the
0.24 north to south of the border with
Germany. German troops also leave
0.24 of East Prussia. The goal is simple:
get to Warsaw as quickly as
0.24 possible.
0.24 For their part, the Luftwaffe&;s fighters
endeavor to eliminate their opponents,
0.24 while dive bombers attack enemy columns or any
0.24 another objective designated by the high command.
The fall of Danzig from September 1
0.24 marks a general withdrawal of the Polish
army, a withdrawal planned, because the
0.24 Poles retreat to much stronger
defensive lines around Warsaw,
0.24 in the center of the country.
0.24 However, this retreat by the Poles quickly
turned into a generalized retreat with
0.24 the fall of another important city,
further south, Krakow, which falls on
0.24 September 6. The lightning advance of the Germans
0.24 provides another advantage, namely that
it&;s now possible to establish air bases
0.24 on Polish soil, exposing the capital
of Warsaw more easily to bombardments
0.24 of the Luftwaffe from 10 September.
0.24 Two weeks after the start of the invasion,
the situation worsened for the Poles.
0.24 It&;s even very worrying. The army then
begins a retreat not only towards
0.24 Warsaw to defend the capital at all costs,
but elements are also falling back
0.24 towards the border with Romania to ward off the worst.
0.24 And the worst is gradually taking shape.
The Polish capital is completely
0.24 surrounded from September 16, plus in
accordance with the terms of the
0.24 Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, the Soviet army
in turn invades Poland the next day!
0.24 How, in these circumstances, can Poland
still get away with it? Reality
0.24 is that victory is impossible, nor even resistance
in the short term, because the Soviets
0.24 manage to make the junction with the
Germans near Brest-Litovsk as soon as
0.24 September 19.
0.24 The Germans therefore have a free hand to rush
towards the Polish capital and the battle
0.24 of Warsaw which begins on September 26 is
very tough. Polish resistance is fierce,
0.24 but the city finally fell two days later, on the 28th.
0.24 It&;s now over for Poland and its
army, the majority of soldiers
0.24 capitulated in the first two weeks of October 1939.
0.24 However, we can speak of a “surface”
capitulation, since several Polish
0.24 units manage to take refuge in
neutral Romania to eventually join
0.24 the Allies, just as a government in exile
and an underground state are formed in
0.24 the coming months.
0.24 Despite all, Germany annexes part of Poland
and the USSR the eastern part. The
0.24 Polish resistance is officially over,
but there are lessons to be learned
0.24 of this campaign, just as lingering
myths were born after these battles.
0.24 For example, the most tenacious of them
is probably which said that the cavalry
0.24 Polonaise charged heads first, or
rather "spears first", towards the
0.24 enemy armored units. It&;s not so.
0.24 Another myth is that the Polish air force was
destroyed on the ground without having delivered
0.24 battle. Again, everything is wrong.
Although it&;s outnumbered
0.24 and that it has lower quality aircraft,
the Polish Air Force has offered
0.24 serious resistance to the Luftwaffe
for at least the first two weeks
0.24 of campaign. The same is true for the quality of
0.24 the resistance of the Polish land army,
once again, the Polish soldiers
0.24 inflicted on the Germans significant losses and
the duration of the campaign, five weeks,
0.24 is surprising for a country that
isn&;t officially a military power
0.24 in the classic sense of the term.
0.24 This first campaign of the World War II
in Europe was therefore heavy in human
0.24 and material losses. The Germans mourn the
loss of about 60,000 soldiers killed,
0.24 wounded and missing, as well as about
240 tanks, 800 vehicles and 250 planes
0.24 out of order. For their part, the Soviets reported
0.24 the loss of about 5,500 soldiers in a
campaign where the Polish resistance was
0.24 much less strong.
0.24 As for the Poles, the results are of course
catastrophic. We&;re talking about losses close to
0.24 875,000 soldiers, almost the entire army,
of which three quarters were taken prisoner,
0.24 in addition to losing almost the entire
arsenal of tanks, guns and planes.
0.24 The end of the Polish campaign doesn&;t
see the end of hostilities in 1939.
0.24 They&;re fighting elsewhere, especially
in Eastern Europe, once again.
0.24 The USSR forces the Baltic States to sign
a pseudo pact of “mutual assistance”
0.24 in case of conflict, and so be able to station
troops there. It smacks of annexation!
0.24 Moreover, the Soviets wanted to
force the Finns to sign such a
0.24 agreement, but the latter refuse, because an
approval on their part would mean sacrificing
0.24 part of the national territory between the
capital Helsinki and the Soviet city
0.24 of Leningrad, plus to seeing
Soviet forces staying there.
0.24 Faced with Finland&;s refusal, the USSR
invaded on November 30, 1939, causing its
0.24 expulsion from the League of Nations and
the start of the so-called Winter War,
0.24 or Finno-Soviet War, which only ended
in March 1940 with some Finnish
0.24 territories concessions.
0.24 The first objective of the Soviets consists in
opening a breach in the isthmus of Karelia,
0.24 a relatively thin strip of land that separates
Lake Ladoga from the Gulf of Finland,
0.24 to facilitate the invasion of
Finnish territory from the south.
0.24 The capital Helsinki was bombed on
December 1, and Finnish troops, facing
0.24 weight of numbers, fall back in good order
behind a defensive line of relatively
0.24 good quality named the "Mannerheim line".
0.24 Despite their overwhelming numerical
superiority, the Soviet forces became
0.24 literally massacred by the Finns
in battles like those of Kolla,
0.24 Taipale or Suomussalmi at the turn
of 1939-1940. Generally, Finns record
0.24 between 4 and 5 times less combat losses
than their Soviet adversaries. The very
0.24 low temperatures in winter, the very bad tactics
of the Russians, the lack of training
0.24 and equipment of their troops, all these
factors contribute to their terrible
0.24 defeats.
0.24 Despite all, the Moscow Treaty signed
in March 1940 forced the Finns to give in
0.24 important territories to the Soviets, in
particular the border region of Karelia.
0.24 However, international public opinion retains
the image of the poor performance
0.24 of the Soviet army. Hitler also notices this
and draws certain lessons from it for
0.24 the future, in the event of a
possible invasion by the USSR.
0.24 On the Western front, that is to say in the
theaters of operations which are opening up
0.24 with England and France declaring
war on Germany on September 3,
0.24 1939, the beginning of the World
War II seems surprisingly calm.
0.24 This is in fact the beginning of the
so-called Phoney War, the war period
0.24 before the start of German invasion
in the west in the spring of 1940.
0.24 Shortly after the start of the general
mobilization of the army, the French began
0.24 an offensive with limited means in the
German border region of the Saar,
0.24 September 7-12. They capture some Germans
0.24 villages, but don&;t push further, despite
the fact that the majority of resources
0.24 soldiers of the Third Reich are
assigned to the campaign in Poland.
0.24 For their part, the start of the war
in the West saw the British begin
0.24 a naval blockade of Germany as they
had done in 1914. In return, the Germans
0.24 respond with submarine warfare, but
a war that remains limited for now.
0.24 Like France, Great Britain wasted no time
in mobilizing its military resources.
0.24 The first elements of the British expeditionary
force landed on the continent as soon as
0.24 September 4. One would swear to see repeating
the scenario of the World War I!
0.24 This "phony war" saw some clashes
and exchanges of gunfire between
0.24 the belligerents. For example, German
cannons fire on French villages
0.24 located near from the Maginot Line, this
powerful series of fortifications erected
0.24 from the Swiss border to the Ardennes
forest in the interwar period.
0.24 In response, the French quickly abandoned
their offensive in the Saar
0.24 to retreat behind the Maginot Line in
October, despite reports that indicate
0.24 a weak German military presence on the western border.
0.24 We can say that the Allies miss a good opportunity
to come to the aid of Poland left
0.24 alone. However, these timid military
maneuvers by the Allies are sufficient
0.24 to alerting the German high command
of the real danger of an invasion
0.24 by the west of the Third Reich.
0.24 Consequently, Hitler ordered preparations
for an invasion by the Netherlands,
0.24 Belgium, Luxembourg and France. This
is called the Fall Gelb or Yellow
0.24 Plan, which delayed its application
by bad weather conditions
0.24 at the end of 1939. The problem for the Germans
0.24 on the western front is that the weather seems favorable
to the Allies. In fact, the more time goes by,
0.24 more time the Allies had to consolidate their
forces and strengthen their front. The effect
0.24 of surprise seems destroyed and the French have
an unshakable confidence in their powerful
0.24 Maginot line.
0.24 However, some German generals, including
Erich von Manstein, boldly proposed
0.24 not to attack the Maginot Line directly, but
to circumvent it from the north across
0.24 the thick Ardennes forest deemed impenetrable.
0.24 Not only is bypassing the Maginot Line
important, but Manstein seeks to
0.24 believe in the Allies that the Germans will not
attack through Belgium either to maintain
0.24 a relative surprise effect and above all
so as not to repeat the 1914 scenario.
0.24 Ironically, the Allied generals approved, in
November 1939, the Dyle Plan submitted by the
0.24 French Chief of Staff, Maurice Gamelin. This
plan consists in dispatching the best
0.24 units directly to Belgium, then to Netherlands
to block the road to the Germans.
0.24 Clearly, the Allied high command seems to believe
that the enemy will borrow the traditional
0.24 route of invasion by Belgium, instead
of considering other bolder scenarios,
0.24 like an attack against the Maginot line
or even through the Ardennes.
0.24 However, advocates of the Dyle Plan
argue that it&;s, in a way,
0.24 to close three breaches in the front line.
A first breach has already been closed
0.24 and this is the portion of the front covered
by the Maginot line; a second breach
0.24 is made up of the Ardennes forest deemed impenetrable!
0.24 The third, finally, is the one starting from the
Ardennes towards the Netherlands. It&;s this
0.24 breach which is considered the most vulnerable,
hence the idea of ​​deploying the best
0.24 mobile and armored units, because it isn&;t
desired that the enemy penetrate deeply
0.24 in France and to the Channel ports as in 1914-18.
0.24 In short, the idea can be defended. It can be
justified, especially since the "phoney
0.24 war" allows time and relative tranquility
to implement this Dyle Plan
0.24 deemed infallible. All that remains is to
wait for the German offensive. In the
0.24 Far East theater of operations, note
that the Sino-Japanese war continues,
0.24 with an unparalleled outbreak of violence. We
fight in the Chinese province of Hunan,
0.24 in the south of the country, during the Battle
of Changsha in September and October, 1939.
0.24 The Chinese nationalists won a victory there
by preventing the Japanese from consolidating
0.24 their hold in southern China. Still
further south, in the province of
0.24 Guangxi, Chinese and Japanese fight a long battle
between November 1939 and November 1940
0.24 for the control of this highly strategic
region, because it&;s the link between
0.24 southern China and all that&;s considered
Vietnam, the Gulf of Tonkin and the
0.24 Pacific Ocean.
0.24 By seizing the territory, the Japanese
gradually managed to cut off supplies
0.24 of China by the south of the country, which
has consequence on the Chinese war effort.
0.24 These last series of Chinese army&;s
0.24 defeats leave the world perplexed as to the
capacities of this one to carry out a fight
0.24 in longer term against Japan. Although China
has been wrestling against Japan since 1931,
0.24 it hasn&;t recovered from defeats suffered
in Shanghai and Nanjing at the end of
0.24 the 1930s.
0.24 China doesn&;t have an army capable of more
victories in the long term because of
0.24 its weak industrial resources, the limited
experience of its army for modern warfare,
0.24 lacking of training and equipment
and, even worse, problems
0.24 in the high command structure and
a disunited political leadership.
0.24 On the air front, 1939 saw some
major battles. There are fights
0.24 in the skies of Poland, where the Luftwaffe
won the decision against an Polish air
0.24 force outnumbered and with lower quality devices.
0.24 The world remembers that plus to the bombardment
of military objectives, the planes of the
0.24 Luftwaffe drop their bombs on civilian
targets, especially cities, which causes
0.24 general disapproval.
0.24 However, German cities suffer the same fate. From September,
0.24 aircraft of the Royal Air Force, the
RAF, attack military objectives and
0.24 civilians in Helgoland Bay, where
Kriegsmarine units are located.
0.24 A little further north, towards Scandinavia in
the Strait of Skaggerak, planes from the
0.24 RAF and Luftwaffe clash, as the
Germans attempt a few missions of
0.24 bombardments against Royal Navy units
off the English and Scottish coasts
0.24 in September and October.
0.24 The year 1939 in the West seems characterized
by fighting between the British and German
0.24 aviation, essentially with the aim of
damaging as much as possible the
0.24 adversary&;s naval forces.
0.24 And speaking of naval forces, they&;re also fighting
in the waters of the world in 1939. The very long
0.24 Atlantic battle or campaign began
in September 1939 when a first
0.24 ship, the liner Athenia, is torpedoed by a German submarine.
0.24 As we said, the British immediately imposed
a naval block of the German coasts
0.24 and, contrary to what we saw during the
Great War, quickly adopted the system
0.24 relatively effective convoys during the
dangerous crossings of the Atlantic.
0.24 The Battle of the Atlantic in 1939 saw
the audacious sinking or torpedoing of some
0.24 units that are the pride of the belligerents. This
is particularly the case for the sinking of the
0.24 aircraft carrier HMS Courageous, sunk on September 17
by a U-boat, just like HMS Royal Oak which
0.24 was sunk by a German submarine on October 13.
0.24 The Allies decided at the start of hostilities
to create specialized combat groups
0.24 responsible for patrolling specific sectors
of the Atlantic Ocean, especially in the
0.24 purpose of fighting enemy surface units.
0.24 In particular, they&;re trying to put an end
to the activities of two large German ships:
0.24 Deutschland and Graf Spee.
0.24 Moreover, in November 1939, the German
fleet received the order to sink all
0.24 Allied merchant ship it crosses, which immediately
sets the tone, because the maritime civilians units
0.24 are bearing the brunt of a war
of which its unknow in advance
0.24 the duration.
0.24 Finally, the year 1939 in the Atlantic
experienced a last major episode,
0.24 namely the battle of the Rio de la Plata,
an estuary located between Argentina and
0.24 Uruguay, on December 13. Then clash the
German heavy cruiser Graf Spee
0.24 and units of the Royal Navy.
Severely damaged after epic struggle
0.24 witnessed by the Uruguayan population along
the coast, the Graf Spee makes its way
0.24 to Montevideo, a neutral seaport.
0.24 Its commander, Captain Hans Langsdorff,
makes the decision to scuttle his ship
0.24 rather than see it fall into British
hands, a few days later he
0.24 commit suicide, given the dishonor
he considers having to give up his
0.24 ship in the presence of the enemy.
0.24 So much for the main clashes on all fronts
for the year 1939. We understand
0.24 so that the beginning war is already
global and it&;ll not end soon.
0.24
0.24 From the beginning, the main belligerents
voted emergency budgets for their
0.24 armies, in addition to issuing
general mobilization orders, this is
0.24 the case among others for Great Britain and France.
0.24 As during the World War I,
it wasn&;t long in setting up
0.24 specialized ministries, e.g.,
departments for ammunition, supply,
0.24 weaponry and so on.
0.24 Without surprise, conscription quickly
becomes a reality, for example in France
0.24 and in England where the need for
soldiers is expected to be great.
0.24 Rationing is also a drastic measure,
but necessary in the event
0.24 where any break in supply lines
should be considered.
0.24 More dramatic, however, are the measures
taken against the Jews. In
0.24 Germany as in the occupied territories,
the Jews are the subject of deportations.
0.24 Jews from Austria and Czechoslovakia left
for concentration camps as early as
0.24 October 1939. A first Jewish ghetto
was created in the Polish city
0.24 of Lublin the same month, which seems to
be only the beginning of the Holocaust
0.24 -I&;ll come back to this throughout the next episodes-
0.24 Diplomacy is another front not to
be neglected. Two days after
0.24 the start of the war in Poland, England
and France declare war on Germany
0.24 after sending ultimatums to withdraw its troops there.
0.24 Once the Polish campaign is over, in
October, Hitler sends a kind of offer
0.24 of peace to France and Great Britain, an
offer immediately rejected for so long
0.24 that the Germans will not leave the occupied territories.
0.24 There is even the pope who adds his grain of
salt. On October 20, Pius XII publishes a
0.24 encyclical entitled Summi Pontificatus in which
he criticizes racism and totalitarianism,
0.24 the sovereign pontiff also denounces the
Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, just as he
0.24 calls for the restoration of the
independence of the Polish state.
0.24 However, some states opt for neutrality,
this is particularly the case in Italy,
0.24 which -of course- displays sympathy for
Nazi Germany, as well as for Spain
0.24 fascist just emerging from a long civil
war. Scandinavian and Baltic countries
0.24 also adopt neutrality. To the west,
countries potentially susceptible
0.24 to be on the way of invasion of the German
forces also proclaim their neutrality,
0.24 this is the case of Belgium and Netherlands.
0.24 In North America, the USA in turn
proclaimed their neutrality.
0.24 However, President Franklin Roosevelt
0.24 signs in November an update of the
Neutrality Act, which advocates a
0.24 Cash & Carry policy, i.e., the USA can sell weapons
0.24 and war material to the belligerents,
provided that the buyers pay cash
0.24 and completely take care of the transport.
For its part, Canada declares war
0.24 to Germany on September 10 and, unlike
the situation in 1914, it did so in his
0.24 proper noun. The majority of the British
dominions follow are in turn
0.24 in a state of war. Let&;s go!
This concludes our episode.
0.24 of the year 1939. The war has just begun. See you
in the next episode dedicated to the events of 1940!
0.24 So, here we&;re in 1940. The year begins.
0.24 Europe and the world are once again
in a war of planetary dimensions.
0.24 The theaters of operations are already
numerous and the number of victims
0.24 skyrockets!
0.24 As in 1914, the belligerents once
again mobilized their armies, their
0.24 finances and their savings. They know
very well that the war will not end
0.24 Christmas, on the contrary, the recent German
victories in Poland, combined with Adolf
0.24 Hitler&;s outrageous ambitions seem to indicate
that the struggle will not end anytime soon.
0.24 As the new year begins, things are
indeed going relatively well
0.24 for the Germans, they occupy the entire
western part of Poland as well as the
0.24 capital, Warsaw.
0.24 Naturally, Hitler is satisfied, but he knows
that his armies will sooner or later have to
0.24 confront those of the great powers
of England and France. As in
0.24 1914-1918, Franco-British soldiers bury
themselves on a front line that makes
0.24 facing the western border of Germany, and
waiting! The belligerents on the front
0.24 West observe each other, a few shots
are exchanged. That&;s what we call
0.24 Phoney War: they&;re at war, but without
really confronting each other.
0.24 But elsewhere the war really continues,
notably between the Soviet Union
0.24 and Finland. The front stabilized
in the isthmus of Karelia. Finns
0.24 lost quite a lot of territory, but
they still suffered terrible
0.24 casualties to ill-prepared Soviet forces.
0.24 In Asia, the Chinese and the Japanese never
stop fighting each other, they&;re fighting
0.24 everywhere along the Chinese coast and the
year 1940 which begins doesn&;t seem
0.24 very promising for an eventual peace.
Finally, new fronts seem to be developing
0.24 on the seas and in the air. Clashes
between British and German Air Force
0.24 in 1939 were somewhat sporadic and
limited to areas in the North Sea and
0.24 near the Baltic Sea.
0.24 On the seas, the British and German navies
somewhat rivaled each other, without
0.24 achieve a convincing victory, whether
in the North Sea or in the Atlantic.
0.24 So this is the situation as a new
year, a new decade begins.
0.24 Let&;s go! Today on History will tell
us, the World War II with the year
0.24 1940.
0.24 What happens when the year 1940 begins?
What first grabs the attention
0.24 is the ongoing conflict between the
USSR and Finland. This war, called
0.24 the Winter War, doesn&;t really know any respite.
0.24 Stalin&;s soldiers take a break at
the start of the year, if only
0.24 to recover from their bitter defeats of
the previous fall, although the top
0.24 Soviet command orders a resumption
f offensives as soon as possible,
0.24 and the troops undoubtedly need
rest. They try to forget the terrible
0.24 defeat suffered during the battle
of Suomussalmi, in northern Finland.
0.24 This battle lasts about a month to officially
conclude on January 8. And hold on
0.24 good. The Soviets, who have troops
about five times greater in number,
0.24 suffer losses of 25,000 soldiers against
barely 2,000 for their Finnish enemies.
0.24 It&;s ten to one!
0.24 The battle of Suomussalmi constitutes a significant
episode of the Winter War and a division
0.24 entire Soviet army is wiped out and an
incredible amount of material is
0.24 destroyed or captured.
0.24 The Soviets begin a withdrawal of their
troops across the entire front, but they
0.24 respond by intensifying their aerial bombardments,
in particular against the Finnish capital,
0.24 Helsinki.
0.24 Stalin and the Soviet high command
tried by all means to repair the
0.24 many humiliations suffered. The reputation
of the Soviet army takes a hit,
0.24 especially since many of his soldiers
died due to the cold and training
0.24 of questionable quality.
0.24 But it&;s with wear and tear that the
Soviets manage to defeat the Finns, if
0.24 one can say. Their assaults on
the main Finnish defense line,
0.24 the Mannerheim Line near Helsinki
end up with some local successes.
0.24 In February 1940, under the weight of the
number, the Finnish troops fell back in good
0.24 order and gradually abandon their line
of defence. Despite their dazzling
0.24 victories, the Finns realize that they
don&;t have the necessary resources
0.24 to last a long time.
0.24 Finland is notably forced to cede
Karelia and other territories
0.24 further north of the country.
0.24 The end of the Winter War with Finland
doesn&;t mark the end of Soviet ambitions
0.24 in Eastern Europe, Stalin has been eyeing the
Baltic States for a long time and counts
0.24 seize it well by orchestrating a series
of incidents to force the intervention
0.24 of his troops.
0.24 The months of May and June 1940
saw Soviet soldiers being involved
0.24 in border incidents which are
in fact staged attempts to put
0.24 involved the Baltic States,
0.24 for example, an incident may take the form
of alleged persecutions of communist groups
0.24 by the governments of the Baltic States. The
USSR must therefore come to their rescue!
0.24 Without fanfare, Stalin sends an
ultimatum to Lithuania, as he does
0.24 with Latvia and Estonia.
0.24 Faced with the refusal of the Baltic States to
comply with Soviet demands, they were immediately
0.24 invaded and occupied. Unsurprisingly,
Stalin quickly announced the annexation
0.24 outright from the Baltic States to the Soviet Union.
0.24 In short, the year 1940 in Eastern
Europe wasn&;t particularly marked by
0.24 great offensives, but the annexation of the
Baltic countries is certainly the blow
0.24 of brilliance which holds international
attention, plus to the war with Finland which
0.24 just ended. On their side, the Germans let it happen,
0.24 and that&;s okay. Let&;s remember that the annexation
of the Baltic States by the USSR constitutes a
0.24 important clause of the Ribbentrop-Molotov
Pact signed in the summer of 1939.
0.24 So, the Germans take note of the
situation, but this doesn&;t prevent
0.24 Hitler to be wary of this
unusual ally, Stalin. Besides,
0.24 at the end of 1940, Hitler will order
the beginning of preparations for a
0.24 possible invasion of the Soviet Union. I&;ll
come back! So that&;s it for the front
0.24 from the east.
0.24 In the West, the year 1940 begins with
a strange incident, whose consequences
0.24 are subject to debate but
which goes almost unnoticed.
0.24 Let&;s remember that the situation on the
front is relatively, or abnormally, calm,
0.24 in what is called the Phoney War.
0.24 However, on January 10, 1940, a German plane,
whose pilot was visibly lost, crashed
0.24 in Belgium, which is then neutral. The
plane crashes near the town of Mechelen
0.24 and it carries on board the details of
Operation Fall Gelb, the Yellow Plan.
0.24 The Mechelen incident first teaches us that
the Germans decided to postpone the invasion
0.24 to the West, i.e., towards France
due to bad weather conditions.
0.24 Ok, we&;re in January, I grant you!
0.24 But more importantly, we learn from these
documents –given to the Allies by the
0.24 Belgian authorities– that the Germans
did indeed intend to invade the
0.24 Scandinavian countries. Clearly, they understand
from the Mechelen incident that a war against
0.24 the West is now inevitable.
0.24 But one question remains: when will the Germans strike?
0.24 This question is central, especially since
the Germans are bringing the final touches
0.24 to the plan of invasion of the Scandinavian countries.
0.24 More specifically, its understands that their
operations will be carried out against Denmark,
0.24 neighboring country which is immediately on
the northern border, then against Norway,
0.24 renowned for its natural resources, including iron.
0.24 For their part, the Franco-British allies
decide that they&;ll also intervene
0.24 on the Scandinavian front, in particular to help Norway.
0.24 Not only do they intend to prevent the Germans from
getting their hands on the iron mines, but
0.24 a military intervention in Norway could eventually
allow them to offer assistance
0.24 more direct to Finland which is struggling
to stop the Soviet assaults in February,
0.24 1940.
0.24 The first months of 1940 in the West were
essentially marked by a reflection
0.24 on the strategies to be adopted for the next campaigns.
0.24 The Allies are thinking on the most effective
way to block the road to the Germans
0.24 who, for their part, reflect on the
best means to employ so that
0.24 the next campaigns remain fast and victorious.
0.24 Moreover, one of the thinking heads
of the German high command, General
0.24 Erich von Manstein proposes a bold,
perhaps too bold plan in February.
0.24 He presents
0.24 Hitler with an invasion plan whose
main effort in the West should
0.24 concentrate in the thick forest of the Ardennes
with the aim of separating the French
0.24 and British armies, then rush quickly over
open ground towards the ports of the
0.24 Sleeve. However, "logic" would have liked, as we
0.24 saw in 1914, that the main effort was brought
more directly to Belgium, where the
0.24 terrain is much flatter and dotted
with fewer natural obstacles.
0.24 But the idea doesn&;t pass. Manstein&;s daring
plan even earned him a momentary loss
0.24 his position as a battle planner at the
general staff, but that&;s only momentary,
0.24 Let&;s remember immediately that the idea
0.24 to attack in difficult terrain to surprise
the enemy making his merry way.
0.24 I&;ll come back!
0.24 Weeks pass and spring arrives.
It&;s precisely April 9, 1940.
0.24 Hitler carries out his plan to
invade the Scandinavian countries!
0.24 German forces rush into Denmark,
whose valiant army fails to
0.24 halt or delay the enemy advance. The
Denmark campaign is probably the
0.24 shortest of World War II, in just
a few hours the entire country
0.24 is occupied.
0.24 The same day, Norway also bears the brunt
of the German invasion. The soldiers
0.24 of the Third Reich are bold, they
attack with all available means.
0.24 The Luftwaffe quickly liquidates the Norwegian
air force and delivers a fairly tough fight
0.24 against the British Royal Air Force. On the
sea, the German navy forces the passage
0.24 of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea
in order to land troops there.
0.24 What&;s more, the Luftwaffe also deploys
thousands of paratroopers, something
0.24 almost never seen before. The
next day, April 10, while the
0.24 Norway still resists, the Germans install
a government of collaboration there.
0.24 The capital Oslo falls quickly, but the
resistance continues much further north,
0.24 where the last elements of the Norwegian
army, assisted by Franco-British reinforcements,
0.24 intend to hold on well.
0.24 They fight in the city of Trondheim,
one of the main landing places of the
0.24 British and French soldiers. The British
also landed at Narvik in mid-April,
0.24 so that Narvik and Trondheim became
the main strongholds of resistance
0.24 once Oslo fell.
0.24 They fight on the Trondheim-Narvik front
for at least two weeks, until the moment
0.24 where the British decide to abandon Trondheim,
then withdraw with the forces
0.24 French of all the last Norwegian ports they hold.
0.24 The Norwegian campaign lasts about two months,
from the starting of the invasion in April until
0.24 final withdrawal of allied troops during May.
0.24 So, in mid-May 1940, we can say that
the Germans occupied a significant part
0.24 of Europe: Poland, Denmark, but also
Norway, are under their control.
0.24 But could Hitler decide to stop
there? Do you doubt it? The
0.24 answer is no. The resounding victory
of German troops in Norway worries
0.24 the Allies at the highest point, so that Hitler
intends to take advantage of their vulnerability.
0.24 In fact, can we really say that the
Allies are vulnerable? Certainly,
0.24 the Scandinavian campaign is a failure,
but the main front in the West, i.e.,
0.24 the French front still holding.
In fact, it wasn&;t even tested!
0.24 The Allies therefore have reasonable grounds
0.24 to believe, as was the case during the
World War I, that they could bar
0.24 the road to the Germans when they put
their invasion plan into action.
0.24 In this context, remember that the Phoney War
has been going on since September 1939. We&;re
0.24 now at early May 1940, they&;ve been
observing each other for months along
0.24 a front line that roughly starts from
the Swiss border to Luxembourg.
0.24 Belgium and the Netherlands, which are
inevitably on the Germans invasion
0.24 route, are still neutral and the Allies
believe that Belgians and Dutch
0.24 will not give carte blanche to the Germans.
0.24 What&;s more, France has its formidable Maginot
Line, a powerful series of fortifications
0.24 defenses dating back to the 1930s, and comprising thousands
0.24 encased soldiers with formidable armament.
0.24 So, it&;s obvious that the Maginot Line
is impenetrable! Further north, the thick
0.24 Ardennes forest could, at the limit, see
the German infantry passing through it,
0.24 but probably not heavy equipment such as tanks, or even
0.24 the artillery.
0.24 In short, there&;s still a part of the front
to be defended a little more tenaciously,
0.24 and it&;s the front between France and
Belgium, because the Maginot Line
0.24 it&;s impenetrable. So, why stress? The Germans
0.24 will never pass! Much has been learned from
the lessons of 1914. Paris and the French
0.24 can sleep peacefully. The world can
rest easy, they think.
0.24 The French army is reputed to be the best
in the world in 1940. In addition, it&;s
0.24 supported by a strong contingent of
British soldiers and can also count on
0.24 the possible collaboration of
Belgian and Dutch troops. So, why
0.24 get angry?
0.24 Unfortunately for the Allies, the phoney
war which began on September 3, 1939,
0.24 came to an abrupt end on May 10, 1940. Hitler gave
the green light to the invasion of the West
0.24 front and it&;s tough. Simultaneously, the
German armies rush into the Netherlands,
0.24 in Belgium, Luxembourg and, of course, in France.
0.24 The Germans are going all out! They
have about 140 infantry divisions,
0.24 which represents about 3 million infantry,
supported by more than 7,000 guns,
0.24 nearly 2,500 tanks, the famous Panzers,
and an air force that brings together
0.24 nearly 6,000 aircraft of all types.
0.24 To this impressive contingent, it&;s
necessary to underline the presence of a
0.24 twenty Italian infantry divisions massed
opposite the southern border of the
0.24 France, but these don&;t move, because
Mussolini&;s Italy remains for the moment
0.24 away from the war in the West. Opposite,
among the Allies, their numbers
0.24 are also impressive. On the other hand,
there&;s a problem of unity of command
0.24 as different nations try to coordinate
the defense of the front.
0.24 Still, the Allies manage to muster
comparable numbers in
0.24 infantry, about 135 infantry divisions,
supported by about 14,000 guns
0.24 and at least 3,500 tanks, many of
which rival the best German Panzers,
0.24 and 3,000 aircraft of all kinds.
0.24 From the outset, the state of emergency is declared
in all the countries located in the axis of Germans
0.24 invasion, they come from everywhere, from
the Swiss border to the Netherlands,
0.24 they even arrive via the sky route, where
thousands of paratroopers are dropped
0.24 in Holland and Belgium.
German paratroopers stand out
0.24 quickly in Belgium by the capture of the
powerful fortress of Eben-Emael on May 10,
0.24 but they experience difficulties during
the Battle of The Hague in the Netherlands
0.24 the same day.
0.24 The next day, and without too much surprise,
Luxembourg was quickly invaded and conquered,
0.24 suddenly opening a passage to France. Despite
their numerical and technological inferiority,
0.24 the Belgian and Dutch armies offer sometimes
strong resistance which manages
0.24 in some places to break the
pace of German advance.
0.24 For example, the Belgian army destroys
all it can to slow down the enemy.
0.24 Roads, bridges, viaducts, railways… nothing
should be left behind that could facilitate
0.24 the German advance.
0.24 The Belgian army, which had the experience
of 1914, resisted as best it can
0.24 and is trying to retreat to the west,
in the hope that sooner or later they can
0.24 establish a front line in northern France.
0.24 For its part, the Dutch army resists
with the energy of despair, even if
0.24 the situation is quickly deteriorating. The
resistance is particularly strong at
0.24 Rotterdam, a city that the Luftwaffe bombarded
relentlessly, not hesitating to pound
0.24 civilians.
0.24 We can even say that the bombardment of
Rotterdam, with that of Warsaw in the fall
0.24 previous, constitutes one of the first
real strategic bombardments of
0.24 the war. It creates a shock wave in the
international public opinion being
0.24 given that civilians are clearly being targeted.
0.24 However, Dutch resistance weakened.
After 5 days of fighting, on May 15,
0.24 most of the country capitulated. The Germans have
settled this file, they occupy Luxembourg
0.24 and they&;re advancing rapidly in Belgium.
0.24 And it isn&;t only in Netherlands and Belgium
where the situation is deteriorating.
0.24 In fact, the Allied high command had
planned, in a way, that Belgian
0.24 and Dutch armies would offer, with all due
respect, a symbolic resistance, to say the least.
0.24 Belgium and the Netherlands aren&;t military
powers, these countries would even have
0.24 wanted to remain neutral in the conflict.
It&;s obvious that the true test for
0.24 the Allies, as for the Germans, will
be the battle to be fought soon
0.24 in France.
0.24 When Belgium and the Netherlands kneel on May 13,
0.24 three days after the start of the invasion,
a German general named Heinz Guderian
0.24 manages with his Panzers to literally break
through the so-called impenetrable Ardennes
0.24 forest. And there&;s panic! How the Germans
0.24 can they pierce such a thick forest with their
tanks? Well, the tanks are advancing,
0.24 quite simply! "There is an obstacle? For example,
a tree? Ok. We&;re going to roll over!
0.24 There is a river? Well either
we roll through it or we get
0.24 the help of military engineers who quickly
build bridges while being protected
0.24 from the air by the Luftwaffe."
In other words, we pass, and we pass
0.24 strongly!
0.24 The breakthrough of the Ardennes at the height
of the French municipality of Sedan creates a
0.24 shock wave both among the Allies and
among the Germans themselves.
0.24 Two days later, on May 15, the Germans crossed
the Meuse, an important river which
0.24 borders the Netherlands, Belgium and France. The
breakthrough of the Meuse at such an early date
0.24 worries the allied generals to the highest
point, since this river is part of the device
0.24 defensive supposed to protect France.
0.24 The breakthrough of the Meuse then allows the Germans
to continue their advance in Belgium. The
0.24 city ​​of Antwerp and the capital Brussels
fall respectively on May 17 and 18, i.e.,
0.24 one week after the start of the campaign.
The Allies are trying somehow to stop
0.24 the Germans in Belgium with their best
infantry divisions, as they attempt
0.24 even to rescue the Dutch, but without success.
0.24 From now on, they must concentrate
on the essential: protect France!
0.24 It&;s necessary at all costs to reconstitute a
front line. But where? This is the heart
0.24 of the problem. To the south of
the front, the Germans bypassed
0.24 the Maginot line by their breakthrough in the
Ardennes. Further north, as in 1914, they
0.24 arrive from Belgium, notably with reinforcements
obtained following the capitulation
0.24 of the Netherlands, which allows
them to intensify the offensive.
0.24 The ideal for the Allies would be to reconstitute
a front line modeled on the positions
0.24 of the time of the 1914-1918 war, i.e., a front
which would start from the French ports
0.24 from the English Channel to the Swiss border,
while of course protecting the French capital:
0.24 Paris. But the situation is quite different. The Germans
0.24 are clearly in control of the strategic
agenda. The allied front is dislocated
0.24 and the Germans intend to take advantage of the situation.
0.24 On May 19, the French city of Amiens
is besieged, as is that of Arras
0.24 a little further north. These two cities were
important defensive positions in 1914-1918,
0.24 but they did not resist the attacks of the
Luftwaffe and the Panzers, part of which
0.24 is ably commanded by General Erwin Rommel.
0.24 The Allies are so overwhelmed that
the Germans manage to reach the
0.24 Channel coast on 19 and 20 May. For
their part, General Guderian&;s Panzers
0.24 even reach the town of Abbeville,
towards Normandy. This is critical!
0.24 We agree that things are really
not going well, that&;s obvious!
0.24 But what to do now? The Allied front
is literally cut in two! Forces
0.24 allies from the north of this dislocated
front then begin a withdrawal towards the
0.24 coasts of the English Channel, more
precisely towards the city of Dunkirk.
0.24 Quickly, Dunkirk becomes a mousetrap. About
300,000 British, French and Belgians
0.24 soldiers are there, whether in the city
itself or on the surrounding beaches.
0.24 Curiously perhaps, Hitler then orders
his troops to halt, he asks to his
0.24 Luftwaffe to relentlessly bombard Dunkirk
and the beaches on May 25, but ordered
0.24 infantry and tanks to camp in their
positions. But why? This decision
0.24 lends itself to debate, to say the least.
Some claim that Hitler was trying
0.24 to spare the remnants of the British contingent, in
0.24 the hope of negotiating peace with England,
a peace which would naturally be favorable
0.24 to the Germans. But whatever, a good part of the top
0.24 Allied command is convinced that the Battle
of France is lost. The soldiers
0.24 French trapped in Dunkirk resist as best they can.
0.24 Their resistance is vital and deserves
to be highlighted, as it saves time
0.24 that must be invested in allowing the
evacuation of hundreds of thousands of
0.24 Allied soldiers stuck on the beaches.
Yes, the decision is taken
0.24 from the Allies: evacuate. It hurts,
it&;s shameful, but they have to
0.24 make it obvious. The Battle of France is truly lost.
0.24 I repeat: the battle is lost.
0.24 And while the Allies realize that the
situation is hopeless, on their side,
0.24 the Germans continue their advances.
Important ports like Boulogne-sur-Mer
0.24 and Calais fell on May 25 and 26, 1940 respectively.
0.24 The fall of these strategic cities forced
the Allies to improvise a vast operation
0.24 to evacuate their troops to England.
This is called Operation
0.24 Dynamo.
0.24 And the task is colossal! It&;s about
evacuating 300,000 Allied soldiers,
0.24 mainly British and French forces,
which are stuck on the beaches
0.24 from Dunkirk. Several elements contribute to make
0.24 the perilous and titanic mission. For example,
one must take into account the nature:
0.24 tides, winds, swell at sea, in
short all these ingredients
0.24 which make navigation difficult in normal times.
0.24 But precisely, we aren&;t in normal times! It&;s the war!
0.24 There&;s also a shortage of military vessels,
including suitable troop transports.
0.24 Imagine: the British government is
even forced to requisition aid
0.24 fishermen, because they need everything
that floats to repatriate the soldiers!
0.24 And as if that weren&;t enough,
during a week of Operation Dynamo,
0.24 from May 25 to June 3, 1940, the Luftwaffe
relentlessly attacked the beaches and the boats
0.24 naval at sea.
0.24 Despite all, the Allies hardly achieved their
objective: to rescue the remaining of the
0.24 British army on the continent,
as well as significant contingents
0.24 of the French army, which -once
the soldiers have recovered and
0.24 have been re-equipped- could be used in future operations.
0.24 We can therefore say that the Western campaign,
and in particular the Battle of France, is now
0.24 almost finished. Belgium in turn capitulated
on May 28 and King Leopold III,
0.24 who refuses to be evacuated,
is interned by the Germans.
0.24 For its part, the city of Paris suffered
some bombardments and was, so to speak,
0.24 declared an “open city”. The Germans
made their entry there on June 14.
0.24 Imagine the reaction of Parisians when they see
the Germans marching down the Champs-Élysées.
0.24 It&;s consternation. They can hardly believe it!
Feelings of anger, disappointment and
0.24 of sorrow mix. The situation is
confused as the Germans settle in
0.24 strength in the capital and across the
country. France is now under occupation.
0.24 But the fall of Paris doesn&;t mean the
complete cessation of fighting and military
0.24 maneuvers. In fact, the Allies are carrying
out Operation Ariel which consists of
0.24 a complete evacuation of their troops
to the mainland from western ports
0.24 of France. In doing so, they manage to recover
0.24 a few tens of thousands of additional
soldiers in the first days of June.
0.24 Moreover, and hold on tight, as France
falls with both knees to the ground,
0.24 when his capital is about to be captured
and his army almost entirely
0.24 annihilated, Italy attacks! Indeed,
large contingents of Italian
0.24 troops stationed on the southern border
of France launched an offensive on
0.24 June 10, 1940.
0.24 Naturally, Mussolini wanted his share of
the spoils. The Italian offensive is
0.24 triggered in haste, without any real
preparation or coordination. The
0.24 almost defeated French soldiers even cause
their Italian enemies to suffer losses
0.24 clearly superior to theirs.
0.24 Unfortunately for France, the situation is
hopeless. She asks for an armistice in Italy,
0.24 as she must, of course, negotiate a ceasefire with Germany.
0.24 Ironically, and this is highly symbolic,
0.24 Hitler demands that the negotiations
and the signing of the armistice take place
0.24 in the same place and in the same room where,
in 1918, the Germans had been forced
0.24 to sign the humiliating armistice
that had helped end the 1914-1918 war.
0.24 The negotiations, for what there&;s to
negotiate, begin on June 21 in Compiègne,
0.24 in the famous car where the German armistice
had been signed some 20 years before.
0.24 Hitler travels for the occasion and the agreement
is signed the next day, June 22. Two
0.24 days later, on the 24th, an armistice was
also signed with Italy and the capitulation
0.24 of France becomes official the next day.
0.24 The end of the Battle of France doesn&;t
mark the end of the war. It&;s obvious,
0.24 you&;ll say to me, but there isn&;t really
a break in operations, both on the side
0.24 of the Allies than on the Axis forces.
0.24 For example, when the campaign
begins in the West, on May 10,
0.24 the British government sees fit to
militarily occupy Iceland, if only
0.24 to prevent the Germans from using this
island as a starting point for their
0.24 naval operations in the Atlantic.
0.24 But as soon as France was defeated,
Hitler eyed England. On July 1,
0.24 1940, he ordered preparations for
Operation Sea Lion, which consisted of
0.24 the land invasion of England and
later of all the British Isles.
0.24 The head of Germany doesn&;t hesitate
to interfere in the work of his staff,
0.24 so much so that one wonders what his
real intentions against England are.
0.24 For example, does he still hope to negotiate
peace with Churchill? Or rather, is it
0.24 that the idea of ​​invading England
is well fixed in his mind?
0.24 Among the directives of Operation Sea Lion,
September 15 is set as the date of
0.24 the invasion, i.e., several weeks after
the intention to invade was announced,
0.24 last July 1.
0.24 Ok, you tell me that it&;s normal that
the preparation of such an offensive
0.24 takes time. I don&;t mind, but you also have
to take into account the weather and
0.24 the season in the year, by September,
summer already seems a long way off.
0.24 Will the weather cooperate? There
is also another important factor
0.24 to take into consideration: could it be,
let&;s admit, that the British who defend
0.24 their national soil, decide to resist
the invaders until the last
0.24 man? I think so yes! That could be!
0.24 Clearly, British resistance will be strong,
if not desperate. They&;ll fight with all
0.24 the means at hand. Already, on the
seas and in the air, the British
0.24 show resistance. It becomes evident that
German ground forces will not cross
0.24 the English Channel, like, for example, cruise
passengers! Franco-British forces evacuated
0.24 disaster to England are certainly in
a sorry state, I grant you, but
0.24 they still benefit from the experience of
the fights of the previous weeks. The
0.24 German generals realize this and try
to convince Hitler to postpone
0.24 the date of invasion.
0.24 For its part – it was predictable – the
weather is acting up. The invasion is
0.24 undoubtedly compromised. Hitler declares a
blockade of the British Isles on August 17,
0.24 but no short-term invasion. We therefore
understand that Operation Sea Lion
0.24 is constantly postponed. British
coastal towns like Dover,
0.24 nevertheless suffered sporadic fire from
the German guns located on the other
0.24 side of the Channel, but no troops on the
ground are preparing to conquer England.
0.24 And as was to be expected, Hitler finally
suspended all plans to invade England.
0.24 This decision was taken in September 1940,
but England remained on its guard.
0.24 You never know, because as long as the
Germans occupy France, the danger
0.24 invasion of the British Isles persists.
0.24 So that&;s where things are on the Western
front in this year of 1940. The story
0.24 doesn&;t stop there, but I open a
parenthesis, if only to see a
0.24 instant what is happening elsewhere in the
world. In the vast theater of operations
0.24 around the Mediterranean –and I include
operations in Africa as well
0.24 than those in the Near and Middle East –,
let’s just say that the war is gaining momentum.
0.24 For example, what first catches the eye is the
beginning of the very long siege of Malta,
0.24 this small island located in the heart of
the Mediterranean, which is controlled by
0.24 the British, and which is strategic. Malta
is an excellent base for conducting
0.24 combat and supply operations on the
vast front of the Mediterranean, if
0.24 although whoever occupies it holds a
clear advantage over his opponent.
0.24 The Axis forces, notably composed of
numerous Italian naval air units,
0.24 begin the siege of the island on June 11, 1940.
This siege, imagine, will last more
0.24 of two years to end only in November 1942.
0.24 Fierce naval battles between the British
and Italian navies for Malta, including
0.24 around Cape Passero on October 12, and
which give a taste of what is to come
0.24 in the coming months regarding
this highly strategic island.
0.24 Elsewhere, the summer of 1940 was marked
by the start of a military campaign in
0.24 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, where the Italian
army manages to take the strategic city
0.24 of Kassala, on July 4th. On the strength
of this victory, the Italians are back
0.24 and advance towards British Somalia, 4 August.
The British are trying so hard
0.24 to resist, if not to delay the Italian
offensive, but they were forced to
0.24 fall back to avoid encirclement.
Somalia falls around August 19.
0.24 Insatiable in his thirst for conquest, Mussolini
ordered another offensive, this time to the
0.24 heart of Egypt at early September,
from Libya which is a Italian
0.24 colony. Again, the Italians initially encounter little
0.24 resistance from the British, but the latter were more
0.24 numerous and better organized than in Sudan or Somalia.
0.24 The Italians are forced to stop
near the strategic city of
0.24 Sidi Barrani, and they are relatively
far from the main English defense line
0.24 in Egypt, the Mersa Matruh Line. So,
in September the Egyptian front seems
0.24 to be stable.
0.24 A sign that the Italians don&;t seem
to have really specific objectives,
0.24 their air force sporadically bombed
everything of British interest. By
0.24 example, military objectives were bombed in
Bahrain and Cairo at the end of October,
0.24 but without too many consequences for the British.
0.24 Elsewhere on the African continent, we notice
a strange situation which will be repeated in
0.24 months and even years to come: believe it
or not, French soldiers clash with other
0.24 French soldiers! But how is it?
0.24 Well, remember, once the defeat of
France was confirmed, a part of
0.24 the French army decides to swear loyalty to
the new collaborationist regime directed
0.24 by Marshal Pétain, what is called Vichy France,
0.24 but we also know that another part of
the army joined in London to the "dissident"
0.24 regime of General Charles de Gaulle, called Free France.
0.24 So the Free French forces of De Gaulle
and the Vichy troops of Pétain
0.24 clashed for the first time in Africa in
November 1940. They fought sporadically
0.24 in Gabon, where the important city of
Libreville was captured by the Free French.
0.24 Without being a resounding victory, the capture
of Libreville is essentially symbolic,
0.24 some see it as a sign of hope that
France, at least the "free" one,
0.24 can still and always contribute militarily
to the war effort of the Allies.
0.24 For its part, the Balkan region is in
turn becoming a theater of operations.
0.24 Mussolini makes the decision, highly contested
by Hitler, to invade Greece on October 15.
0.24 But why? What purpose? Out of jealousy towards
Hitler and his recent conquests?
0.24 Note that between October 15 and 25, 1940,
when the first Italian troops
0.24 set foot in Greece, there&;s a two-week
delay when the Italian dictator
0.24 could have reconsidered his decision.
0.24 But he doesn&;t. His forces are advancing
slowly but surely in Greece. Nevertheless,
0.24 it spoils quickly for the Italians. Of
course, the Greek population is worried.
0.24 Greece isn&;t a military power and several
major cities in the country are bombed,
0.24 including the important port of Salonika, on November 2.
0.24 However, the Greek army won an important,
if not a brilliant victory
0.24 at the battle of Elaia-Kalamas in the first
week of November 1940. In fact, the Italianarmy
0.24 is downright humiliated and is forced
to take a break by withdrawing
0.24 in Albania, his starting base.
As if that weren&;t enough, the army
0.24 Greek gives it back. Not only does it succeed
in liberating the national territory, but it
0.24 teaches her Italian rival a lesson again
by pushing her much further inside
0.24 of Albania in December 1940.
0.24 A sign that this Greek victory isn&;t
only brilliant, but above all unexpected,
0.24 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
orders a redeployment of part of the
0.24 strength of its army from North Africa
to the Greek theater of operations.
0.24 He does so despite the contrary opinion
of his generals, who maintain that
0.24 it&;s more important to defend Egypt
and the Suez Canal than to open
0.24 a front in the Balkans. But
Churchill has the last word!
0.24 It&;s true that at the end of
1940, the Greek army controlled
0.24 about a quarter of Albanian territory,
which forced Mussolini to almost demand
0.24 on his knees for help to the Germans. In fact,
an official request for military assistance
0.24 will be made on December 28, 1940. Nice
Christmas present for the Germans, no?
0.24 In addition, Italy is once again in difficulty
on the maritime front of the
0.24 Mediterranean. British naval air forces
storm the important Italian port
0.24 from Taranto, in the south of the country.
The Battle of Taranto, which takes place on
0.24 November 11 and 12, 1940, was a resounding
victory for the British, their famous
0.24 but relatively old-fashioned Swordfish aircraft
take turns from the aircraft carrier
0.24 HMS Illustrious with the aim of dropping their
torpedoes against important Italian naval
0.24 units based in this port.
0.24 Moreover, in the days following the battle, observers
0.24 Japanese come to visit Taranto in order to study
the course of the fighting, in what appears
0.24 as a precursor scenario, or a case study, of
the famous naval air battle of Pearl
0.24 Harbor in 1941. However, with their victory at Taranto,
0.24 the British are strengthening the security
of their supply lines in the Mediterranean,
0.24 although the island of Malta is still under siege.
0.24 The British are also looking to take advantage
of Italian defeats in Taranto and
0.24 in Greece to launch a major offensive
in Egypt. We&;re in the first
0.24 week of December 1940 and it was
the start of Operation Compass.
0.24 The objective of Compass is to give the
Westrern Desert Force the mandate to hunt
0.24 the Italians from the territory around the
Egyptian border town of Sidi Barrani.
0.24 And it&;s a smash hit for the Brits!; or again,
a disaster for the Italians!
0.24 Operation Compass leads to the rout of
the Italian army which loses at least
0.24 40,000 soldiers captured or missing.
Egypt is liberated from the presence
0.24 of the Axis forces. The British
are advancing rapidly in Libya
0.24 and capture the important Italian
fortress of Capuzzo in mid-December.
0.24 In the Pacific theater, well yes,
always the same war that Japan
0.24 and China continues with a vengeance. At the
end of March 1940, Japan installed a puppet
0.24 government in Nanjing, on the very site of
the infamous massacre of 1937. And
0.24 there is fighting almost everywhere
along the east coast of China.
0.24 The battle raged in Shanxi in January, then
in Chungking on the Yantgze River in
0.24 the end of May. In northern China, the Chinese
launched the so-called “Hundreds regiments"
0.24 offensive, in particular with the aim of avenging
Nanjing and allowing the communist forces
0.24 to test their troops in large-scale conventional warfare.
0.24 In September, the Japanese take advantage
of the collapse of France in Europe to occupy
0.24 its colony of Indochina. At the same
time, the Japanese continue to face
0.24 both nationalist Chinese and communist
Chinese, who are themselves at war.
0.24 In short, things aren&;t going well in China!
0.24 On the air war front, the year 1940
logically saw an intensification of
0.24 operations, particularly with regard to
the so-called "strategic bombing" operations.
0.24 In March, for example, the Lutfwaffe attacked
0.24 the British military base at Scapa Flow,
Scotland, causing military casualties,
0.24 but where there are also the first
civilian victims on British soil.
0.24 In response to this attack as well as the
more controversial German bombardment of
0.24 Rotterdam, the Allies retaliated by bombing
several German cities such as Hamburg,
0.24 Bremen, Cologne and Essen in the spring of 1940.
0.24 And while ground fighting rages in
France in the Dunkirk pocket at
0.24 late May and early June, an intense air battle
is fought in the English Channel, where
0.24 Allied planes are desperately trying to
prevent the Luftwaffe from inflicting more
0.24 damage to Franco-British soldiers
trying to evacuate the beach.
0.24 But the air battle which definitely marks the
spirits and which remains emblematic of
0.24 nowadays, is the Battle of Britain which
takes place in the second half of
0.24 1940.
0.24 Lutfwaffe air campaign against
England officially begins on
0.24 July 10 by raids against British shipping
convoys in the English Channel. The
0.24 Germans are also seeking, you understand,
to rid the English skies of enemies
0.24 planes in order to allow a possible ground offensive.
0.24 And there, it&;ll hit hard! In the next
days, the skies of the British Isles
0.24 is covered with thousands of Luftwaffe
aircraft that criss-cross not only England,
0.24 but also Wales, Scotland and even northern Ireland.
0.24 Already weakened by major losses during
the French campaign which has just
0.24 end, the Royal Air Force struggles outnumbered,
but with the energy of desperation. During
0.24 the summer, and particularly in August
and September, the RAF suffered many losses,
0.24 certainly, but also makes the Germans suffer
from it. Its staffing problem is gradually
0.24 compensated by a significant increase in the
production of aircraft, in particular aircraft
0.24 fighters such as the famous Supermarine Spitfire
and Hawker Hurricaine, which prove to be excellent
0.24 rivals to German Messerschmidt-109
and Messerschmidt-110 aircraft.
0.24 And as the Battle of Britain
advances in time, the British
0.24 realize that they can count on other factors
than the number of their planes and
0.24 the bravery of their pilots.
For example, often fighting
0.24 over national territory gives downed
pilots a chance to parachute
0.24 knowing that they fall on friendly ground.
0.24 Also, the German fighters, which take off
from their bases on the continent, have
0.24 a short range that often gives them
barely 15 to 20 minutes of autonomy
0.24 to fight over England. From
mid-August 1940, the British
0.24 can add to their defensive gear another
component which becomes decisive
0.24 in the outcome of victory: the radar.
0.24 Radar allows ground support teams
to spot well in advance the
0.24 number and direction of enemy air assault waves.
0.24 The consequence of all this is that the
German bombers, in charge of pulverizing
0.24 British towns and military installations,
are increasingly left
0.24 to themselves, as they lack support
from their fighters and the radars
0.24 allow them to be better combated. Radars
are literally the eyes of the RAF.
0.24 As I said, the Battle of Britain marks
the spirits of the time. Besides,
0.24 Prime Minister Churchill realizes this
fully when he speaks in the House
0.24 of the Commons his famous phrase: “Never
was so much owed by so many to so few”
0.24 And the battle continues!
0.24 The Luftwaffe shells British cities
daily, including the capital
0.24 of London in September and throughout
October, this is the period
0.24 known as the London Blitz, where the
British capital knows little respite.
0.24 And RAF fighter pilots take off and
shoot down German planes, get
0.24 shoot down in turn, take off again to
refuel with fuel and ammunition, to
0.24 change plane. It&;s a hellish pace!
0.24 The city of Liverpool alone gets bombed
at least 200 times! Civilians become
0.24 in turn victims in the same way as the military.
0.24 On November 14 and 15, the city of Coventry
and its cathedral undergo one of the most
0.24 heavy bombardments so far, causing about 2,000
casualties. And speaking of cathedrals,
0.24 that of London also suffered a bombardment on December 29.
0.24 And the British are fighting back,
as best they can. The last weeks
0.24 1940 marked a period known as
“bombing exchanges”, it means
0.24 quite simply: "you bombard me, I bombard you back!"
0.24 The RAF shells, for example, the German cities
of Düsseldorf and Mannheim in December,
0.24 and even the city of Turin which suffered a similar
fate the same month. Eye for an eye, tooth
0.24 for tooth, as its sayd.
0.24 On the sea front, the naval battles
of the year 1940 aren&;t perfectly
0.24 conclusive for one side or another,
but the allied forces seem to have a
0.24 slight advantage in the context of the setbacks
of the Italian Navy in the Mediterranean.
0.24 From February 15, Hitler ordered all-out
submarine warfare, following the example of
0.24 what Kaiser Wilhelm II had done in 1917.
In other words, the German submarines
0.24 have the green light to sink anything that floats,
regardless of the nationality of the vessel caught
0.24 for target.
0.24 On the Norwegian side, when the Germans
invaded the country in April,
0.24 witness intense naval battles during the
spring and summer. The Germans suffer
0.24 significant losses, particularly in
terms of destroyers, but managed to
0.24 to sink the important British aircraft carrier HMS Glorious.
0.24 In the Mediterranean, on the other hand,
the maritime front is much more active.
0.24 The first major incident was the Battle
of Mers-el-Kébir on July 3, 1940,
0.24 off the Algerian coast. Mers-el-Kébir
is an important French naval base
0.24 and the British want at all costs to prevent
the French fleet on the spot from falling
0.24 in the hands of the Germans.
0.24 It was then that units of the Royal
Navy attacked furiously and managed
0.24 to sink or seriously damage
three cuirassiers and destroyers,
0.24 resulting in the death of at least
1,300 French sailors for minor losses
0.24 on the British side.
0.24 The news is all the more shocking for
many French people, because it comes
0.24 in the context of the terrible defeat and
occupation of the country. Naturally,
0.24 the Vichy government breaks diplomatic
relations with Great Britain.
0.24 Still in the Mediterranean, operations are
continuing around Malta, which remains
0.24 besieged. The British manage in
August to protect a first convoy
0.24 supply to the island which, as
we know, is an important base of
0.24 English naval force and a central pivot for the
organization of future operations in this sector.
0.24 But it&;s probably in the Atlantic where
the situation begins to deteriorate for
0.24 the allies, September and October
witness heavy losses in convoys
0.24 of supplies. The German U-Boats are already
active there and this is only the beginning.
0.24 This overview of the year 1940 would not be
complete without mentioning what&;s
0.24 happening on the various domestic fronts,
as well as on the diplomatic front.
0.24 On January 24, in Germany, Hermann Göring entrusts
the SS, Reinhard Heydrich, with the mandate of
0.24 design or gradually prepare a response, i.e., a "solution"
0.24 to what was then called the “Jewish question”,
all in anticipation of the terrible
0.24 final solution that the Nazis are preparing for
the Jews. I&;ll come back to it, of course.
0.24 In April and May, the Soviet secret services of
the NKVD, under Stalin&;s approval, massacred
0.24 about 22,000 officers and members of the Polish
intelligentsia, especially in the Katyn forest
0.24 and elsewhere. In England, we know that Winston Churchill
0.24 acceded to the post of Prime Minister after the
resignation of his rival Neville Chamberlain,
0.24 May 10, 1940, the very day of the German invasion in the West.
0.24 He formed a wartime coalition government and a few days later, he
0.24 makes a famous speech in which he
can only promise the British
0.24 blood and tears. Eh yes!
0.24 The military organization is preparing
in England, the rationing of
0.24 raw materials and basic consumer goods
is a reality. Churchill asks
0.24 also military aid from Canada and the
United States because it&;s now
0.24 obvious that the war will be long.
0.24 Moreover, in the countries occupied by the
forces of the Axis, the puppet governments
0.24 of collaboration are taking place, this is
particularly the case in France with the
0.24 Vichy regime under Marshal Pétain, as well
as in Norway under Nazi Vidkun Quisling.
0.24 This doesn&;t bode well for the occupied populations,
especially the Jews. For instance,
0.24 in Poland, the Jews of Warsaw are transferred
to a ghetto, in an isolated district of
0.24 the capital, the Warsaw ghetto is permanently
cordoned and cut off from the rest of the city at
0.24 mid-November.
0.24 In the United States, President Franklin Roosevelt
is re-elected for a third term, the
0.24 November 5. Although he promises not
to deploy American soldiers abroad,
0.24 his election gives hope to the British
to receive more military aid from
0.24 from the American giant.
0.24 Finally, on the diplomatic front, the year 1940
doesn&;t give its place! From February,
0.24 Germany and the USSR sign a new treaty
in which Berlin can count on
0.24 Moscow for the supply of raw materials, especially grain.
0.24 The next month, Hitler and Mussolini meet
in Austria, they agree that Italy
0.24 will enter the war on the side of Germany at
the time deemed “opportune”. The same month,
0.24 and in this same logic, France
and England agree not to
0.24 sign a separate peace agreement with Germany.
In short, alliances are solidifying.
0.24 The months of April, May and June 1940 also
saw the departure and training in exile of
0.24 various governments of the occupied countries,
governments which, for the most part, settle
0.24 in London for the duration of the hostilities.
The idea being that even if they&;re under
0.24 enemy occupation, the war must nevertheless
be pursued with all available resources.
0.24 It&;s somewhat in this spirit that General
Charles de Gaulle, in the context of the
0.24 recent occupation of France, launches his
famous appeal of June 18 where he asks
0.24 the resistance continues.
0.24 For its part, the British government was
quick to recognize to De Gaulle and
0.24 the government of Free France at the end
of June, knowing that there&;s another
0.24 French government, that of Vichy,
with which relations are broken
0.24 in the context of the occupation and in that
of the naval disaster of Mers-el-Kébir.
0.24 In Eastern Europe, the year 1940 on the
diplomatic front saw the USSR launch
0.24 an ultimatum to Romania for control of the
territories of Bessarabia and the north
0.24 from Bukovina, yhe Romanians wanted to negotiate,
but it was a waste of time, the Soviet forces
0.24 occupy and annex these territories on August.
0.24 Naturally, the Germans don&;t lift a
finger, which, by the way, brings
0.24 Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov to
reaffirm the solidity of the pact
0.24 concluded with his counterpart Ribbentrop the previous year.
0.24 This superficial rapprochement between Germany and
the USSR leads in its wake to a rapprochement
0.24 between the USA and Great Britain.
0.24 Shortly before Roosevelt&;s re-election, the
two powers signed an agreement entitled
0.24 Destroyers for Bases Agreement in which the
United States donates 50 torpedo boats in
0.24 exchange of land rights to British possessions.
0.24 But the agreement is sharply criticized in
the USA, which is supposed to be neutral
0.24 in this war. At late September and early October, while
0.24 Axis victories pile up in Europe,
its member countries sign the
0.24 Tripartite Pact, where mutual aid is
promised, the alliance materializes for
0.24 Germany and its allies.
0.24 On October 23, Hitler also met the Spanish
dictator Franco in Hendaye, in
0.24 France, in the hope of convincing Spain
to participate in the war alongside
0.24 the Axis. In fact, Spain, which emerged
bloodless and ruined from its terrible civilian
0.24 war, remained neutral during the World War II.
0.24 The next day, in Montoire, Hitler has an
interview with Marshal Pétain, this meeting
0.24 somehow marks the official start of
France&;s collaboration, at least
0.24 that of Vichy, with Nazi Germany.
0.24 On November 12, in Berlin, Molotov meets Hitler
and Ribbentrop, they discuss the redistricting
0.24 areas of Nazi and Soviet influence
around the world. The Soviets claim
0.24 want to control, or influence, Finland,
Bulgaria, Romania and the Strait of
0.24 Bosphorus despite Turkey&;s neutrality. Without
wanting to concede everything to the Soviets
0.24 in exchange for their neutrality, Hitler remains
a little more vague, but he evokes a world
0.24 which would effectively be divided into
zones of influence for Germany, the USSR,
0.24 Italy and Japan.
0.24 But the Soviets are greedy. The next day,
November 13, the USSR demanded the complete
0.24 and final liquidation of Finland. Hitler
refuses and resists any Soviet attempt
0.24 to expand further in Europe. The
USSR is nevertheless invited to join
0.24 the Tripartite Pact, but he hesitates since
his territorial ambitions risk being
0.24 sooner or later thwarted by those of
Germany. However, satellite countries
0.24 join the Pact, notably Hungary, Romania
and Slovakia, these states are
0.24 now members of the Axis forces.
0.24 As you can see, this World War II
has only just begun. The allies
0.24 can they still hope for victory? Or is it better to
make concessions and negotiate peace with the Axis?
0.24 We&;re in the third year.
0.24 In the third year of what? Of a war
that seems endless and perhaps without
0.24 hope for many. The year 1941 begins. A
bit like in Asterix, I would have the
0.24 feel like telling you that all of Europe
is occupied, all of it? No. Britain resists
0.24 still and again to the Nazi invader.
0.24 Of course, the fall of this military
power that was France weighs heavily
0.24 on the conscience of the Allies. And yet,
France! His army was supposed to be
0.24 the best in the world, the best trained, the
best equipped and the best defended with
0.24 its Maginot Line! Nop?
0.24 The USSR, for its part, remained neutral
in the conflict, so the British Isles
0.24 are quite alone against Germany, which
seems to have a free hand, with its
0.24 Italian ally, to strike other blows in
Europe, if not elsewhere in the world.
0.24 England becomes in a way the place where the
remains of foreign armies whose countries
0.24 are now under occupation are collected.
0.24 Everything is to be done, or rather to be redone.
They must reconstitute the armies, think about
0.24 new strategies, increase industrial
production capacities and, perhaps,
0.24 pray for the USSR and the USA
to intervene in the conflict
0.24 against the Axis. No, it&;s really not going well for
0.24 the Allies at the beginning of 1941.
0.24 Here we go! We embark on this
third episode dedicated to the
0.24 World War II: the year 1941!
0.24 But where to start? There&;s no longer a Western
front, nor even an Eastern front! Aerial
0.24 warfare? Yes, there has sporadic fights
in the skies. Naval warfare? Yes, there
0.24 has clashes at sea that we&;ll examine, but
I would like taking you somewhere else.
0.24 I&;m talking about Africa, because, yes,
it seems to be on the African continent
0.24 that the fighting at early 1941 was the
most intense and where the front was more
0.24 activated.
0.24 Remember that the north of Africa between
Libya and Egypt, then to the southeast
0.24 up to Somalia is then largely under
Italian domination, these territories
0.24 are -in fact- mostly Italian colonies
that the Allies wish to capture.
0.24 From January 5, British and Australian
troops continue the operation
0.24 Compass whose main objective is to liberate
the entire North African coast
0.24 between the Suez Canal and Libya.
0.24 The Allies capture Bardia, a Libyan coastal
town very close to the Egyptian border
0.24 and it&;s a resounding success! No less than
45,000 Italian soldiers were taken prisoner
0.24 and the important port city of Tobruk
is just 100 kms to the west.
0.24 This is enough to boost the morale of the
Allies, who really need it! Besides, two
0.24 days later, on January 7, the Allies advanced west and
0.24 seized at Tobruk airport.
0.24 Everything is then implemented among the Allies
for the final assault against Tobruk and, perhaps,
0.24 the definitive expulsion of the Italians from
the North African front. Tobruk indeed falls
0.24 two weeks later, on January 21, with
the fall of Tobruk, all hopes
0.24 seem permitted, especially since the Allies
are again moving towards the west of
0.24 Libya. At the end of January, they&;re
about 150 kms west of Tobruk.
0.24 And this other debacle of the Italian
army raises concerns and questions
0.24 in Berlin: can we really trust Italy
to win the war? The question
0.24 may seem relevant, but the important
thing for Germany is to act to resume
0.24 control of the situation in North Africa.
0.24 On February 3, a former hero of the
World War I, General Erwin Rommel
0.24 is appointed head of a new formation called
the Afrika Korps. In doing so, Germany
0.24 officially commits to this theater
of operations, if only to rescue
0.24 Italy, which is struggling to
maintain its positions in Libya,
0.24 but in the meantime, the Italian situation
in Africa is deteriorating at a crazy pace.
0.24 On February 7, a British detachment managed
to circumvent the Italian front and
0.24 to force the capitulation, hold on tight,
of 130,000 soldiers around Benghazi.
0.24 Yes! Nasty nice welcome gift for Rommel!
Especially since the progress of
0.24 Allies West continues, still skirting
the Mediterranean coast.
0.24 For his part, Benito Mussolini is informed
that German reinforcements are on the way,
0.24 which effectively means that the Germans
now take control of operations
0.24 of the Axis in North Africa.
0.24 It was time, because on February 9, the British
Allies captured the city of El-Agheila
0.24 located nearly 300 kms southwest of
Benghazi, still along the coast,
0.24 in the Libyan province of Cyrenaica. And
the German reinforcements arrive next!
0.24 Two days later, on February 11, the
first elements of the Afrika Korps land
0.24 in Tripoli, at the western end
of Libya. Although they&;re over
0.24 700 kms from the front, the Italians
can start to breathe a little.
0.24 Rommel himself set foot in Africa on the
14th and immediately led his army corps
0.24 towards the east to make contact with the
forward elements of the British army
0.24 in El-Agheila. A first clash between
British and Germans soldiers
0.24 takes place on February 20, precisely
for the control of El-Agheila,
0.24 that Rommel decides to capture to prevent
the enemy from advancing further west.
0.24 At late March- early April 1941, the Germans
finally regained control of the cities
0.24 of El-Agheila and Tobruk, forcing the
British forces to withdraw to the east,
0.24 always along the coast, towards Egypt.
Consequently, there&;s a full shift of the
0.24 situation! In barely a month, the
Germans recaptured from the British
0.24 all the Italian territory lost between El-Agheila
and the Egyptian border. Clearly, the
0.24 Libyan province of Cyrenaica is almost reconquered.
0.24 However the thorn in the side of the Axis
forces, remains the city of Tobruk, a
0.24 highly strategic seaport. Unsurprisingly,
the British defend the places with a
0.24 few more resources. Judging at
first glance that a direct attack
0.24 is too risky, Rommel begins the siege of
the city, in the hope that it capitulates
0.24 quickly and the Axis advance into
Egypt could resume. Rommel account
0.24 on this port as a new supply centre.
The siege of Tobruk begins on April 10
0.24 and the Germans also take advantage of this to secure
the territory between this city and the Egyptian
0.24 border, they recapture the Italian
fort of Capuzzo at the same time.
0.24 Despite everything, Tobruk resists and the
city tests Rommel&;s patience and nerves.
0.24 The latter launched three attacks in the
second half of April, but without success.
0.24 Never mind, Rommel still makes
the decision to rush to Egypt,
0.24 knowing that surrounded Tobruk remains behind
his front. Moreover, at the end of April,
0.24 Rommel is forbidden to renew the
offensive against Tobruk, so he favor
0.24 the advance to Egypt.
0.24 But the fights are tough, they fight almost
directly on the border between
0.24 Libya and Egypt. It&;s May, 1941,
and the British, mainly composed
0.24 of Australian and Indian troops, intended
to resist the Germans on a front line
0.24 located between the Halfaya pass, in
Egypt, and the fort of Capuzzo, in Libya.
0.24 The clashes intensity in this sector
of the North African front in May
0.24 and June 1941 can be explained essentially
by two reasons: first, the Germans
0.24 need to win there in order to complete
the siege of Tobruk and then be able to
0.24 resume the advance towards Egypt.
0.24 For their part, the British also
need a victory there, precisely
0.24 to -it&;s hoped- finally clear Egypt
and save the besieged Tobruk.
0.24 Several operations carried out on both sides
in this sector in the spring of 1941 ended
0.24 by terrible losses, especially on
the British side who are literally
0.24 slaughter their tanks trying to
cross the terrible Halfaya Pass.
0.24 But in mid-June, Tobruk remains under siege.
0.24 Still, during the summer and
fall of 1941, the belligerents
0.24 take a very relative break, if only
because they&;re exhausted. The allies
0.24 return to the offensive in November, always
with the aim of getting out of the pass
0.24 of Halfaya, to liberate Tobruk, and then to
continue the advance further west into Libya.
0.24 Thus begins on November 18 Operation Crusader,
which includes a series of operations
0.24 extremely confused on the border between
Libya and Egypt, with perhaps as
0.24 peculiarity that the Allies try to circumvent
the enemy positions by the south,
0.24 much further inland.
0.24 Despite a promising start, Operation Crusader
quickly turns into a nightmare for the allies.
0.24 On November 22 and 23, Rommel counter-attacked
south of Tobruk, at the point
0.24 where the Allies are, again, massacred
their tanks to the point where the general
0.24 German even manages to enter Egypt again, a few kilometers.
0.24 But Rommel probably realizes he&;s gone too far east given
0.24 the exhaustion of its troops and its
cruel lack of manpower and supplies.
0.24 The Allies took advantage of this, on December
15, to launch a counter-offensive against the
0.24 more limited. They manage to repel the enemy
as far as Gazala, a little to the west
0.24 of Tobruk, lifting the siege
that lasted about 250 days!
0.24 Rommel, however, clearly feels that the state
of his army doesn&;t allow him to maintain
0.24 a stable position on Gazala. Consequently,
he orders a general retreat, but in
0.24 good order, towards El-Agheila, several
hundred kilometers to the west, where
0.24 he had started the campaign at the beginning of
the year. In short, all has to be started over.
0.24 The idea is therefore clear for Rommel at the
end of the year 1941 in North Africa: he
0.24 must wait for reinforcements and supplies.
0.24 But, are they fighting only on the
Mediterranean coast of Africa?
0.24 Well, no! Other fronts, other infernos
are fueled elsewhere in Africa,
0.24 as well as in the Near and Middle East. Let&;s
see what&;s happening elsewhere in Africa,
0.24 in the "horn" of the continent. The
start of the year 1941 is marked,
0.24 from January, by a counter-offensive
by British troops, essentially
0.24 composed of colonial soldiers, to retake
Ethiopia from the Italians, the offense
0.24 is conducted from neighboring Kenya.
0.24 Despite the weaknesses of the Italian army,
the task is far from easy for the
0.24 Allies, in particular because the North African
front and the Balkan front –which I&;ll discuss
0.24 in a few moments– eat up a lot of resources.
0.24 The idea is, essentially, to drive the
Italians out of the British colonies
0.24 invaded in 1940, then take their own colonies
in the hope of permanently expelling them
0.24 of the African continent.
0.24 Parallel to the offensive in Ethiopia, the
British are also pushing into Eritrea
0.24 from Sudan, still in January, and they
also risk carrying out an offensive
0.24 to Italian Somalia. The idea is, you&;ll
understand, to attack the Italians
0.24 on all fronts at once until
there&;s a crack in one place
0.24 or another. From February, we can say that
0.24 the Allies are making significant progress,
particularly in Eritrea and Italian Somalia.
0.24 For example, Mogadishu in Italian Somalia
falls on February 25, and Eritrea is
0.24 conquered so to speak at the beginning of April
with the fall of Asmara, the capital.
0.24 And the situation on this front is going from
bad to worse for the Italians. On April 6 is
0.24 the turn of the Ethiopian capital of Addis
Ababa to fall, although the Italians seem
0.24 offer a stronger resistance in this country,
since they fight there all April.
0.24 But it&;s a waste of time for Italy. On May
5, 1941, five years after having had to flee
0.24 his country then invaded, the Ethiopian emperor
Haile Selassie then makes a triumphal entry
0.24 in its capital, thus marking the end of
the war in this theater of operations.
0.24 The Italian surrender in the eastern horn
of Africa becomes official on May 18.
0.24 So, what happens then? Well, the Duke
of Aosta, who had been appointed by
0.24 Mussolini viceroy of East Africa,
capitulates with all of his troops
0.24 located in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia.
0.24 Of course, the war in Africa is far from
over. However, the horn lies completely
0.24 cleared of the Axis presence at
the end of 1941, freeing troops
0.24 allies who will be able to fight
in other theaters of operations.
0.24 As promised, let&;s now move to the
Near and Middle East. We can
0.24 say that the Axis forces were present there at
the beginning of 1941, but their positions
0.24 remain fragile. For their part, the Allies, a bit like
0.24 they do it in Italian Africa, wish to take
advantage of this apparent weakness
0.24 to quickly conquer these regions to ultimately
bring back the main military effort
0.24 to the European theater of operations.
0.24 From the outset, the Axis benefited from support that
was unusual, to say the least. Indeed, on April 1,
0.24 Iraqi nationalist general Rashid Ali
and three other army generals –a group
0.24 dubbed the “Golden Square”– overthrow
the regent’s pro-British government
0.24 during a coup. In reaction, Great Britain dispatched
0.24 reinforcements in Iraq in mid-April. His troops occupy
the port of Basra in the south of the country
0.24 then they move towards the capital Baghdad.
0.24 The idea for the British is to
secure the oil fields and, ultimately,
0.24 to use the territory to launch
future operations in the region,
0.24 but the Iraqis loyal to the new regime are
not letting it go. They hold their own
0.24 to the British and immediately occupied
a major air base to the west of
0.24 Baghdad, the base of Habbaniya
which is under siege at early May.
0.24 Unfortunately for the young Iraqi army,
it doesn&;t benefit from almost any
0.24 air support, so the aircraft of
the Royal Air Force can at will
0.24 strafing and bombarding his widely visible
troops in the great desert space.
0.24 The month of May in this theater of operations
sees clashes taking place especially
0.24 west of Baghdad, around the base of
Habbaniya, the city of Falluja and
0.24 from Baghdad. The remnants of the Iraqi army
are forced to withdraw towards Baghdad
0.24 whose fall is only a matter of time.
0.24 And the Germans, on their side, what are they
doing? Well, let&;s say Hitler wishes to send
0.24 reinforcements in Iraq. His support for General
Ali&;s nationalist movement is confirmed when
0.24 he signed, at the end of May, Directive No. 30 which
provides for the dispatch of reinforcements,
0.24 including Luftwaffe squadrons and some Italian aircraft.
0.24 But it&;s "too little, too late", as
its said. On May 27, British troops
0.24 are on the outskirts of Baghdad, three days
later, the German military mission presented
0.24 in Iraq is leaving the territory, as are
General Ali and some of his supporters.
0.24 The next day, May 31, British
soldiers entered Baghdad. It&;s
0.24 officially ended this very short Anglo-Iraqi
war which, at the very least, has
0.24 only lasted a few weeks.
0.24 The Iraqi file having been settled in favor of
the Allies, the front now seems to be
0.24 move to the Near East in the summer of 1941.
0.24 The Allies don&;t fully control
the Middle East, as Syria
0.24 and Lebanon remain under Axis
control through French forces on
0.24 place remained faithful to the Vichy regime.
0.24 For this campaign, the Allies essentially
have troops from the British Empire,
0.24 but we also notice the presence of
free French forces. Yeah… you see
0.24 me coming… It&;s likely that the
French will face the French again:
0.24 the invasion of Syria and Lebanon began
on June 8, 1941, and contrary to a
0.24 certain popular belief that the
Vichy troops only fought weakly,
0.24 well in the facts, and especially the losses
suffered by the Allies, seem to demonstrate
0.24 that the fights are harder than you think.
0.24 The fighting is particularly violent
along the Litanie River, towards
0.24 of Beirut, as well as at the Battle
of Jezzine in mid-June, where
0.24 the Australians despite the loss of
several hundred of their soldiers.
0.24 The Syria and Lebanon campaign lasts
a total of five weeks. On July 1,
0.24 the ancient city of Palmyra, located in
central Syria, falls into British hands.
0.24 About ten days later, on July 12, to
Hitler&;s chagrin, the French forces
0.24 loyal to Vichy capitulate in Syria,
it&;s also over the presence of
0.24 the Axis in this region.
0.24 A few weeks later, on August 25,
when the Soviet Union is
0.24 at war -I&;ll come back to this- the British
invade Iran. Why?, will you tell me.
0.24 Let&;s say they do it for a series of
strategic reasons, the main ones
0.24 are the possessions of the oilfields in
the region, as well as the capture of the
0.24 network of railways in order to facilitate
the supply of the new ally, which is
0.24 of course the USSR.
0.24 And now, let&;s get closer to Europe, the main
theater of operations where everything
0.24 began. There too, the war on the
old continent escalated in 1941.
0.24 First, I come back to the file of the Greek
front, or rather the Greek-Albanian front,
0.24 insofar as, from the month of January, the
Greek army maintained its advance in
0.24 southern Albania in the face of
demoralized Italian troops.
0.24 They fight in particular in the Klisura pass,
a winding passage through the mountains
0.24 that separate Greece from Albania. The
fighting are violent and constitutes
0.24 probably the most important operation since
the beginning of the Italo-Greek war,
0.24 but in late January and early February
the front appears to have stabilized, the
0.24 news looks good for the Greek army. On
the other hand, runs the rumor that
0.24 an important movements of German troops
are observed in Bulgaria, which
0.24 ends up joining the Axis side on March 1.
0.24 The rumor is quickly confirmed, but
Greeks remain optimistic due in early
0.24 March British reinforcements arrived
in the Balkans, reinforcements which
0.24 were originally intended for the North African front.
0.24 For their part, the Italians seem reassured
by the possible presence of German soldiers
0.24 in the Balkan. At least, their morale is rising, to the
point where, on March 9, the Italians go there
0.24 of a counter-offensive on the Albanian front.
0.24 Again, unfortunately for them –and much
to Mussolini&;s chagrin– the Italians
0.24 are forced to suspend their offensive
two weeks later. No progress is
0.24 recorded and losses remain high. In other
words, the assistance of the Germans
0.24 becomes more than necessary.
0.24 And it&;s coming! The Italians can finally
breathe. The blessing comes from heaven,
0.24 finally, in the form of violent bombardments
of the Luftwaffe which appears
0.24 when Hitler made the decision to
invade Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941.
0.24 This is the beginning of the Balkan campaign
for the Germans. Yugoslavia is under attack
0.24 from all sides, as German forces
advancing into the country are also
0.24 supported by Italian and Hungarian troops.
0.24 The capital Belgrade was intensely bombarded
for two days, but the resistance of
0.24 the Yugoslav army is strong, at
least stronger than expected,
0.24 but this doesn&;t prevent the Axis forces
from advancing by outflanking the enemy
0.24 from all sides. For example, on April 8,
Germans rushed into Greece and captured
0.24 the important port of Salonica, a port which
had been so important to the effort of
0.24 war of the Allies during the World War I.
0.24 And as Greece is overrun from the east,
the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade
0.24 falls on April 12, these two falls -Belgrade
and Salonika- mark a turning point
0.24 in the Balkan campaign. Indeed,
the military situation of the Allies
0.24 deteriorates rapidly. The bulk of the
Greek army is in southern Albania,
0.24 and the British reinforcements arrived
in Greece the previous month are struggling
0.24 to coordinate with their Greek counterparts.
Worse still, the fall of Belgrade opens a
0.24 route of attack for the Germans towards
Greece. On April 14, they manage to
0.24 do what the Italians haven&;t been able to do
for months, which is to capture the strategic
0.24 Klisoura pass, located in the center of the
Greek-Italian front, on the border with Albania.
0.24 By capturing the southern part of this strategic passage in
the mountains, the Germans immediately blocked
0.24 the line of retreat of the Greek army in
Albania and prevent any communication
0.24 with the British Army. Logically, the Greek army is
0.24 completely surrounded, while the Germans
finish their conquest of Yugoslavia
0.24 and rush towards Athens, the Greek capital.
0.24 On April 17, Yugoslavia officially capitulated and
King Peter had to flee the country, a government
0.24 Yugoslav in exile was then trained in
London. As expected, the Greeks soldiers
0.24 trapped in the Klisoura pass surrender
in turn. In doing so, the Germans
0.24 take more than 200,000 prisoners.
It&;s the end of the Greek army.
0.24 On April 22, faced with the catastrophic situation
of the Greek and Yugoslav armies, the
0.24 British troops begin their evacuation from Greece,
time is running out, because the Germans
0.24 are advancing rapidly. Part of the British
forces is evacuated to the island of
0.24 Ridge, the other towards Egypt.
0.24 The Germans therefore entered Athens
on April 27, which marked the
0.24 capitulation of Greece, but the
Balkan campaign isn&;t quite completed,
0.24 the Germans want to seize the island
of Crete, where the Allies are trying
0.24 to organize the defense in an emergency.
The Crete campaign begins on May 20, 1941
0.24 and lasts two weeks, it&;s improvised
insofar as the defense of the island
0.24 is done with the remains of the British and
Greek armies, and the offensive is hastily
0.24 prepared on the German side.
0.24 On May 20, thousands of German paratroopers
were dropped on the island along with
0.24 amphibious troops, the paratroopers of
the Luftwaffe suffer terrible losses,
0.24 thousands of them fall in battle, killed,
wounded or captured, to the point where
0.24 the relevance of employing paratroopers again for
0.24 future campaigns was cuestioned. Creta,
in this sense, is a warning signal,
0.24 but the island was gradually conquered by
the Axis, in particular thanks to the
0.24 amphibious troops, but resistance is
strong. On May 28, British troops
0.24 undertake another evacuation, the island
must be abandoned, so the invasion
0.24 officially ends on June 1.
0.24 The end of the campaign in the Balkans
leads us to take stock this summer
0.24 of 1941. As we have seen, the Allies are making good
progress in the theaters of operations in
0.24 Africa and the Middle East.
Some will say that are theaters
0.24 secondary compared with Europe,
but the Allies don&;t have the
0.24 luxury of spitting on victories, even secondary ones.
0.24 In Europe, it&;s true, the Allies situation
isn&;t improving, they held up well
0.24 in the Balkans, but the Axis forces
control a large part of Europe
0.24 continent and Hitler&;s ambitions know no end.
0.24 Because yes, Hitler wants more, always more.
His thirst for conquests must once again be
0.24 sealed, and the Soviet Union it&;s
the next target of his territorial ambitions
0.24 It&;s true that the Balkan campaign is delaying
0.24 considerably the project of invasion of
the USSR given the setbacks of the Italians
0.24 which oblige the Germans to lend them a hand;
0.24 nevertheless, the World War II took a
decisive turn on June 22, 1941. On that day,
0.24 Hitler carries out his long-standing
plan to invade the USSR, in complete
0.24 violation of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact signed in 1939.
0.24 And hold on tight, because it&;s a major
campaign of the conflict that begins! Imagine!
0.24 The Germans muster almost, without exaggerating
anything, all their military resources!
0.24 All! For Operation Barbarossa – name of
0.24 code given to the offensive – the Germans
have about 150 infantry divisions,
0.24 that&;s, 3.5 million soldiers!
Supported by more than 3,500 tanks,
0.24 5,000 combat aircraft, tens of thousands
of cannons and troops from member countries
0.24 of the Axis.
0.24 Naturally, the Red Army is powerful. But
will it be able to face the invasion
0.24 considering it suffers from cruel deficiencies
in terms of the quality of its equipment
0.24 and its training? It had done poorly
against the Finns last year,
0.24 will it be able to stop the German invasion this time?
0.24 Because this invasion is tough! On June 22,
1941, therefore, the Germans advanced
0.24 in the Soviet Union following three flanks,
including one to the north towards Leningrad,
0.24 another in the center towards the capital Moscow,
then a third in the south towards the Caucasus.
0.24 From June 24, the city of Vilnius in Lithuania
falls, offering a blow to the local Lithuanians
0.24 militias the opportunity to massacre
dozens of Jews to applause
0.24 and encouragement from the crowd…
In addition, the start of the operation
0.24 Barbarossa offers Finland the opportunity
to go to war again against the USSR,
0.24 the so-called the Continuation War, where
the Finns have as their main objective
0.24 to regain the territories lost in 1940,
but without going any further.
0.24 Anyway, the advance of the Germans in
the Soviet Union during the summer
0.24 of 1941 is dazzling. On June 27, Lithuania
is completely occupied. The day after,
0.24 more than 300,000 Soviet soldiers are
surrounded near Minsk and Bialystok.
0.24 On July 1, Riga, Latvia falls, and the country
in turn finds itself occupied, opening
0.24 suddenly the way to Leningrad, the ultimate
goal of the northern flank in Russia.
0.24 The next day, July 2, German forces and
their Hungarian and Romanian allies advanced
0.24 in Ukraine and the important Dnieper
river is reached a few days later.
0.24 The next week, on July 9, the city
of Vitebsk in Belarus fell, marking
0.24 the beginning of the important Battle of Smolensk and
0.24 does seem to stop the Germans! Moreover,
always at the beginning of July,
0.24 Stalin publicizes his &;scorched earth&; policy.
In other words, they fall back burning
0.24 and destroying everything in their path.
Leave nothing to the invader!
0.24 No matter, the German progression continues!
It&;s irresistible! Minsk,
0.24 Belarus, fell on July 10 under the progress
of the General Guderian&;s panzers, who had
0.24 distinguished in France in 1940. And the Russians
devote quite a bit of resources to the
0.24 defense of Smolensk, because that&;s
clearly the way to Moscow!
0.24 Finally, after a few weeks of combat,
Smolensk in turn falls in the first
0.24 week of August. The Germans take more
than 300,000 Soviet prisoners and
0.24 also take advantage to consolidate their
occupation of the Baltic States.
0.24 While great news in itself, the
fall of Smolensk poses a thorny
0.24 problem for the German General Staff. Indeed,
on August 12, Hitler, against the advice
0.24 of his generals, decides to weaken the
front of the center, i.e., the front
0.24 to Moscow, in order to redirect troops to the
northern fronts for Leningrad and southern
0.24 to Crimea. With heavy consequences, some believe
0.24 that this decision has a decisive impact on
progress towards Moscow. Should it have been
0.24 devote everything to the capture of the
Soviet capital, or rather redirect troops
0.24 elsewhere to complete the capture of
other places of strategic importance?
0.24 Clearly, this debate reflects the geographical
immensity of this theater of operations.
0.24 It&;s not Poland or France, the borders
of the Soviet Union are lost
0.24 to infinity! Nevertheless, the German advance continues.
0.24 On August 22, they approach Leningrad, which
is gradually surrounded to be finally
0.24 under siege at the end of the month. The civilian
population is even conscripted to organize
0.24 the defense.
0.24 The siege of Leningrad officially begins on
September 8, 1941 and it will last 900 days!
0.24 Over two years! The sacrifices demanded
of the population are appalling. I&;ll
0.24 return in future episodes. Further
south, in Ukraine, the capital Kyiv
0.24 is also surrounded and falls the next week.
Here again, the Red Army sacrificed
0.24 hundreds of thousands of soldiers in its defence.
0.24 The fall of Smolensk and Kyiv constitute,
so to speak, two keys which open the
0.24 gates that converge on Moscow. On October 2,
the order was given to resume the advance
0.24 to the Soviet capital, this is
the start of Operation Typhoon,
0.24 where the Germans go for broke to
deal the final blow to the Red
0.24 Army. But in early October,
conditions change on the ground,
0.24 it&;s much colder, the ground is muddy and
it&;s raining. It&;s also snowing already.
0.24 The troops are gradually bogged down,
Infantry can march, hardly
0.24 however, mainly vehicles and heavy
equipment that can&;t follow.
0.24 Despite all, it seems that the
Red Army is even more exhausted
0.24 than its German rival. As proof, the
Germans complete the conquest of a
0.24 large part of Ukraine, they reach the
Sea of ​​Azov in early October and reach
0.24 to capture another 650,000 prisoners around Smolensk.
0.24 So, they rush to Moscow! The ground seems
to harden again in mid-October, allowing
0.24 theoretically to vehicles to drive
better, but it&;s very relative.
0.24 Like their compatriots in Leningrad, Muscovites
are preparing, or resigning themselves,
0.24 to a seat, officially announced to the
inhabitants by their government on 19
0.24 October, which improvise defenses, their
leader Stalin remains in the capital,
0.24 but the government is evacuated.
0.24 At the same time, Stalin was convinced that he
could count on the neutrality of Japan in
0.24 Far East to urgently transfer a
few dozen Siberians infantry
0.24 divisions to Moscow, this is normal because
a neutrality pact has been signed
0.24 between the two countries on April 13.
Japan has other plans. I&;ll come back!
0.24 And although the situation is critical
for the Soviets, they can count
0.24 on certain elements to avoid defeat.
First, I said, the weather factor
0.24 is important. The so-called General
Winter is beginning, plus the
0.24 time factor comes into play.
All the time the Germans take
0.24 to complete the conquest of Ukraine delays
the capture of Moscow. Nevertheless, the
0.24 strategic mining and industrial center of Kharkov
falls at the end of October and the Germans
0.24 are approaching the important port city of Sevastopol.
0.24 At the end of November, despite the terrible cold
ambient, the battle on the outskirts of Moscow
0.24 intensifies. The Germans capture certain
suburbs of the capital, notably those near
0.24 of the Volga Canal, but the continuation
of the offensive becomes impossible.
0.24 Imagine! It was around -40 degrees Celsius at
the beginning of December 1941 in Moscow!
0.24 How to continue the attack under these conditions?
0.24 German soldiers don&;t even have combat
gear suitable for wintery
0.24 conditions! Vehicle engines won&;t start!
They&;re more likely to die because
0.24 cold than in combat! Temperature obliges, the German staff
0.24 then took the decision to suspend the offensive
on the Moscow front on December 5. Three
0.24 days later, in the middle of a blizzard, the
Soviet counter-offensive began to clear
0.24 the capital and it&;s a success.
0.24 The Germans are forced to retreat and the
eventual capture of the Soviet capital
0.24 is no longer possible. Moscow is
therefore temporarily saved.
0.24 However, on December 17, the Germans began
their siege of Sevastopol and that
0.24 of Leningrad continues. Moreover, in Leningrad only
0.24 3,000 inhabitants die daily of hunger, disease and cold.
0.24 Yes, 3000 per day!
0.24 Now that the Soviet Union is at war under
the effect of the German invasion,
0.24 one can reasonably believe that the war
is global. Really? What about the
0.24 side of the Pacific and the Far East in 1941?
0.24 In fact, if we move towards this vast theater
of operations, we observe that the beginning
0.24 of the year was marked by the continuation
of hostilities in China. First, the rivalries
0.24 between nationalist Chinese and their communist
compatriots continue, despite their
0.24 must fight against the common enemy: the Japanese invader.
0.24 Moreover, speaking about the Japanese,
they continue to progress in Asia. On 28
0.24 July, against the background of the defeat
of France, they invade French Indochina,
0.24 but simultaneously allow the Vichy
administration to continue its work.
0.24 In exchange -if one can call it an
"exchange"- Vichy must leave the
0.24 Japanese occupy and use their bases in Indochina.
0.24 Probably more worrying for the Allies is
the fact that in early November the Emperor
0.24 Japanese Hiro-Hito approves plan
to attack US naval base of Pearl
0.24 Harbor, Hawaii. In fact, Americans
have known since at least July
0.24 the intentions of the Japanese, but they do nothing.
0.24 We suspect that eventually the Japanese
will end up attacking massively in the
0.24 Pacific Ocean. On September 6, the Japanese
cabinet makes the decision to go sooner or later
0.24 at war with the USA if the oil embargo isn&;t lifted.
0.24 On the other hand, one fact remains:
the Allies aren&;t really ready to face
0.24 to this eventuality. On November 17, the American
ambassador to Japan, Joseph Grew, telegraphs
0.24 to his government that the Japanese
are about to attack Pearl Harbor! They
0.24 ignore him; at least officially,
0.24 because, contrary to what is often said,
the USA facing with the Japanese threat
0.24 don&;t remain totally silent, nor with their arms crossed.
0.24 On November 26, the US State Department
sends Japan the Hull Note, of which
0.24 the contents may be construed as a
commitment by the USA and Japan to
0.24 not to violate international rules on diplomacy, trade, etc.
0.24 So, the Hull Note is intended as a non-aggression
pact between nations, but it&;s also interpreted
0.24 as a casus belli, insofar as the
Japanese perceive it as an ultimatum for
0.24 evacuation from China and other
territories they occupy in Asia.
0.24 Certainly, on the same day that
the Hull Note is sent, i.e.,
0.24 on November 26, 1941, a Japanese fleet of
33 auxiliary ships and aircraft was spotted
0.24 in the Pacific, this fleet sails towards the
Hawaiian Islands.
0.24 Can they finally ring the alarm bells in
Washington? The United States is clearly
0.24 targeted! The Japanese aren&;t there as tourists!
Moreover, on December 2, the Japanese Prime
0.24 Minister publicly rejects the Hull Note.
In short, wake up! The attack is coming
0.24 to big steps!
0.24 But despite the many warnings, what had to
happen… happens. On December 7, 1941,
0.24 the American naval base at Pearl Harbor
suffered a terrible assault from the Japanese
0.24 naval aviation forces. In just a few hours,
0.24 the US Navy loses four of its cuirassiers
sunk, four others seriously damaged,
0.24 at least 300 aircraft destroyed or damaged, not
to mention more than 3,000 sailors killed,
0.24 injured or missing. Needless to say
the shock wave created at the
0.24 USA and around the world following
this "surprise" attack by the Japanese.
0.24 Now, we can really say that the war is global.
0.24 Unsurprisingly, US President Franklin
Roosevelt asks the US Congress
0.24 to meet urgently. The USA in turn declares war on Japan!
0.24 And this Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor is part of a campaign
0.24 expansion throughout the Pacific.
As they attack Pearl Harbor,
0.24 the Japanese rush towards British Thailand
and Malaya, they also throw
0.24 air offensives against Guam, Hong Kong,
the Philippines, Shanghai, Singapore
0.24 and the American island of Wake.
0.24 In short, it&;s the total! The next day, December 8,
the Japanese captured the Gilbert Islands,
0.24 located in northeastern Australia, the
same day they attack the British colony
0.24 of Hong Kong and their troops set foot in Malaysia.
0.24 It&;s simple: the Allies are completely overwhelmed,
and above all ill-prepared. There has fierce
0.24 fighting between American and Japanese
soldiers on Wake Island, which belongs
0.24 to the USA and which is completely lost
in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
0.24 From December 11 to 23, the Japanese
tried several times to seize it to
0.24 its strategic importance in the middle
of the ocean, they undergo heavy
0.24 casualties, but the American
garrison eventually surrendered.
0.24 The Japanese invade Burma that same
month and continue their advance in
0.24 Malaysia, they also occupy the northern islands
of the Philippines and Manila, the capital,
0.24 is declared an open city.
0.24 The American soldiers who defend this
possession retreat to the peninsula
0.24 of Bataan, while observing the Japanese
landing in Sumatra, Indonesia.
0.24 For its part, Hong Kong finally saw
Japanese soldiers land on its soil on
0.24 December 18, the resistance there lasted
a week, where the colonial British
0.24 troops put up admirable resistance, but in vain.
0.24 In short, we can say that the Japanese now
occupy large portions of the islands of the
0.24 Pacific and South Asia. At the end of December
1941, their troops even threatened Australia
0.24 and are not far from the border with India.
0.24 So here is an additional enemy for the
Allies to fight, and it&;s a big one!
0.24 The expansion of the war in the world in 1941
shows us that there are fighting almost
0.24 on all continents. However, the
war on the air fronts and on the
0.24 seas is far from having taken a break; on
the contrary, here too, it intensifies.
0.24 Let’s take the case of air-fights first.
During the first six months of 1941,
0.24 before the German invasion of the
Soviet Union began, the British
0.24 islands are always and again the object
of bombardments by the Luftwaffe.
0.24 London is regularly bombed throughout
January, despite the fact that
0.24 the Royal Air Force responded as best
it could by attacking German cities.
0.24 For example, on January 11, a raid on London
killed and injured at least 120 people,
0.24 the Bank of England is hit and the
underground station just below
0.24 is demolished, even Buckingham Palace
on March 8 is hit by bombs.
0.24 Other cities such as Plymouth, Bristol and
Belfast also bear the brunt of these attacks
0.24 almost incessant which also continues
throughout April. On May 10,
0.24 it&;s the turn of the House of Commons, the
heart of the British parliament, to be
0.24 hit by bombs.
0.24 But over time, the air blitz against the
British Isles, without completely ceasing,
0.24 subsides. RAF bombers are increasingly
capable of fighting back
0.24 and German cities are paying the price.
Berlin is particularly affected in the fall
0.24 of 1941, but British losses in these raids were heavy.
0.24 Moreover, in anticipation of the campaign which
begins in Russia in June, the majority of
0.24 Luftwaffe bomber resources are diverted
to this front, where the capital
0.24 of Moscow is the subject of particular attention.
0.24 In addition, the air war in 1941 also
raged in the Mediterranean. More
0.24 precisely, as was the case the previous year,
in 1940, the strategic island
0.24 of Malta held by the British is widely coveted.
0.24 The Luftwaffe attacks and seriously damages the
British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious
0.24 which, precisely, is on its way to supply Malta.
0.24 This presence of German planes in this
theater of operations sends a signal
0.24 clear that, as we see in the Balkans,
the Germans intend to take from the
0.24 Italians control operations. But the
island of Malta remains under strong
0.24 pressures, the supply situation is
seriously deteriorating. Always in
0.24 January, the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious suffered
a second attack from the Luftwaffe and Malta
0.24 is in turn bombarded.
0.24 The intensity of the bombings against Malta is
quite terrible, the situation of the island
0.24 in March is critical, the bombardments are
daily, because the presence of the forces
0.24 allies on the island considerably harm the
supply of the Axis in Africa. Rommel
0.24 regularly complains about it, and to
say that Malta is bombed is almost
0.24 an understatement. On December 1, 1941, believe it or
not, the island suffered its 1,000th bombardment
0.24 since the beginning of the war! Who can
still doubt the strategic value of Malta?
0.24 On the sea front, there again, the war is
experiencing an undeniable expansion. Still
0.24 in the theater of operations in the Mediterranean,
the British are trying to deny the
0.24 Axis naval forces this strategic sea. In
March, the Royal Navy inflicts another defeat
0.24 to the Italian Navy, this time during the
Battle of Cape Matapan, in southern Greece.
0.24 The British seem to favor the use of the
aircraft carrier, where the aircraft can
0.24 take off and attack the heavy Italian cuirassiers.
0.24 During this battle, more than 2,000
Italian sailors died there for losses
0.24 insignificant on the British side,
which suggests a change of dogma,
0.24 where the use of the aircraft carrier,
as I said, now seems privileged
0.24 to that of the cuirassier. And
times are tough for the naval forces
0.24 of the Axis in the Mediterranean. In April,
a month after the Cap Matapan disaster, the
0.24 Italian Navy takes another setback.
This time, British destroyers
0.24 manage to sink five German transport ships
responsible for supplying Rommel and
0.24 the Afrika Korps in North Africa. The
problem? These ships are supposed to be
0.24 protected by three Italian destroyers,
which suffered the same fate.
0.24 And the beneficial effects of the Axis disasters
in the Mediterranean are beginning to
0.24 make felt for the Allies. For example,
despite constant aerial bombardment,
0.24 the supply of the island of Malta
is more and more regular from
0.24 August. As if that weren&;t enough, the
0.24 Italian Navy suffered another humiliating
defeat in the Mediterranean in November,
0.24 this time an Axis supply convoy
nicknamed Duisburg is attacked by
0.24 the Royal Navy, at the junction with the Adriatic Sea.
0.24 Results? At least seven Italian merchant
ships are sunk and their escorts severely
0.24 damaged.
0.24 No need to specify at this stage that
the Italians are severely criticized by
0.24 the Germans, this string of chain disasters
squarely jeopardizes the effort
0.24 of the Axis war on the North African front,
especially since the British had absolutely no
0.24 difficulty in decoding Italian naval communications.
0.24 In this sense, the maritime front of the
Mediterranean is of great importance
0.24 for the belligerents,
0.24 without there being any territory of specific
strategic importance to capture –apart from
0.24 the island of Malta– the sea plays
an important role in supplying both
0.24 from the African and the European front.
The belligerents then sought, in 1941,
0.24 to control both the sky and the sea.
0.24 On the side of the Atlantic Ocean, the
naval war also sees an intensification
0.24 in operations and battles in 1941. From
the beginning of the year, in February,
0.24 it becomes evident that the submarine warfare
practiced by the Germans is becoming more
0.24 aggressive, better organized, and above all,
more deadly for anyone in the Allies that
0.24 risk crossing the ocean.
0.24 The months of February, March and April 1941
in the Atlantic were particularly deadly,
0.24 allied supply convoys to England are literally decimated
0.24 by the German submarines attacking
in groups, like a pack of wolves.
0.24 For example, for the single day of April 4,
an allied convoy alone loses 50% of its
0.24 units. The submarines attack in groups, then
disappear immediately, they&;re difficult
0.24 to be spotted, then to sink.
0.24 Anglo-Canadian naval forces tasked with
patrolling the North Atlantic are struggling
0.24 to compete with submarines. A somewhat
encouraging sign, however, on May 8, a
0.24 German submarine, U-110, is captured
relatively intact and the Allies put
0.24 hand over a communications
encryption device named Enigma.
0.24 The decoding of German communications
is a long-term task which
0.24 takes time. The idea is, as always,
to seek solutions to reduce the terrible
0.24 losses suffered in the convoys
responsible for bringing to Europe
0.24 vital supplies to the Allied war effort.
0.24 The Battle of the Atlantic in 1941
was also marked by some clashes
0.24 involving area units. For example,
despite their neutrality,
0.24 American warships become the targets
of German submarines from time to time.
0.24 On April 10 and 11, the destroyer USS
Niblack was attacked as it attempted
0.24 to rescue the survivors of a sunken Dutch
liner. The next month, on 21 May,
0.24 an American freighter, the SS Robin Moor,
is sunk by the German submarine U-69,
0.24 in the Atlantic.
0.24 Naturally, the American government and public
opinion are outraged. Roosevelt
0.24 then declares a state of "unlimited national
emergency", just to reassure his opinion
0.24 and to send a message to the Germans
to stop attacking American ships,
0.24 but at the same time, this type of incident
involving American ships becomes
0.24 almost inevitable.
0.24 Why? For the simple reason that since
January, the American Congress is
0.24 preparing to vote on the “Lend-Lease” program which
aims to provide friendly countries, such as
0.24 Great Britain, China, and later the USSR,
of war material without intervening
0.24 directly into the conflict. It&;s a kind
of “very participative neutrality”!
0.24 The following month, President Roosevelt signed the
famous Lend Lease Act, which therefore allowed
0.24 the Allies to buy military equipment
from the USA while deferring payments
0.24 once hostilities have ended.
0.24 The battle in the Atlantic therefore has
a major impact on what can be called
0.24 the “diplomatic front”. The Allies are
struggling to fight the Germans at sea, if
0.24 although the help of the USA becomes
more and more essential.
0.24 Moreover, on August 1, the USA
declared an oil embargo against
0.24 their "aggressors". The next week, the
9th, the Atlantic Charter was signed
0.24 between Roosevelt and Churchill.
0.24 This charter is important because it sets
out the living conditions of a post-war world,
0.24 particularly with regard to the freedoms
of peoples, freedom of trade,
0.24 circulation at sea, disarmament, etc. We
can even say that this charter will become
0.24 the basis of the future United Nations.
0.24 While waiting for the war to be over and despite
the many failures suffered in the Atlantic
0.24 that year, the Allies can nevertheless
post a victory at the end of
0.24 May, when an epic naval battle
to hunt down the pride of
0.24 the German navy, the heavy battleship Bismarck.
0.24 This huge ship has claimed many victims since
the beginning of hostilities. In last
0.24 date, May 24, the Bismarck managed to sink
the British battlecruiser HMS Hood,
0.24 off Greenland in the North Atlantic.
0.24 The sacrifice of HMS Hood enabled British
naval air forces at the end of May to
0.24 locate and then hunt down this dangerous enemy
deemed almost unsinkable. Several buildings
0.24 of surface try to encircle and fire jointly
on the Bismarck, which is defending
0.24 literally like a devil in holy water!
0.24 The Swordfish&;s torpedo planes are
also put to use, as they did
0.24 in Taranto, in the Mediterranean, the
previous year against the Italian navy.
0.24 The Swordfish take turns taking off from the
aircraft carrier HMS Royal Ark and attempt to
0.24 locate the Bismarck and fire their torpedoes.
0.24 One of them reached the Bismarck&;s
rudder, which, unable to maneuver
0.24 freely, begins to describe wide circles
without could regain control of its
0.24 path. This long-term battle at sea
lasted two days, May 26 and 27, 1941.
0.24 Then the Germans decided to scuttle
the ship, in order to limit the
0.24 casualties and falling into enemy hands.
0.24 The loss of the Bismarck was certainly
a blow to German morale, but their efforts
0.24 with a view to winning the battle in the Atlantic
in 1941 don&;t seem to want to diminish.
0.24 Moreover, on September 4, a U-Boat
didn&;t hesitate to attack an American
0.24 destroyer, the USS Greer, while they
know that the USA is neutral at this
0.24 time, even if the Germans plead, or
complain, that the Americans participate
0.24 more and more to the protection of convoys to Europe.
0.24 The next month, on October 17, the situation
degenerated. Another American destroyer,
0.24 the USS Kearny, is again attacked by a U-Boat,
this time killing eleven American marines,
0.24 who, as a result, become the first American
military victims of the conflict while
0.24 the USA is always neutral!
Two weeks later, on October 30, the
0.24 American destroyer USS Reuben is
attacked and sunk by a U-Boat near
0.24 Iceland,
0.24 this time about a hundred American
marines died there and their ship
0.24 becomes the first US naval unit
sunk during hostilities. Remember:
0.24 America is still neutral at the time of the
facts! Oh yes! You already knew that!
0.24 And to end today&;s episode, I invite
you to explore the highlights
0.24 on the home front in 1941, where, like the
military fronts, the amount of drama
0.24 humans can no longer be counted.
As I mentioned before, regime of
0.24 collaboration with the Nazi occupiers are
emerging in Europe. In the present case,
0.24 on January 5, 1941, the Belgian Léon Degrelle, leader
of the fascist party of Wallonia, pronounced
0.24 in Liège a speech of support from the Reist party
to the Nazi regime, his supporters provide
0.24 also volunteers in the German army.
0.24 At the same time, in France, Admiral François
Darlan, the right arm of Marshal
0.24 Pétain, becomes Vice-Chairman of the Board, thereby
marking a strengthening of the collaboration
0.24 with the Nazi regime. Pro-Nazi sympathies also arise
0.24 in Yugoslavia, before the official
start of the April 6 invasion, as
0.24 we saw. On March 21, the Yugoslav
cabinet resigns in protest against
0.24 the prince regent Paul who adheres
to the cause of the Nazis.
0.24 Moreover, a few days later, a coup
orchestrated by the army expelled
0.24 the regent Paul in order to install the young crown
prince Pierre there. Combined with setbacks
0.24 of the Italian army in the Balkans,
the events in Yugoslavia convince
0.24 Hitler to invade the country and thereby
delay the invasion of the Soviet Union.
0.24 Once occupied, Yugoslavia was
divided by the Germans. For instance,
0.24 they create the Independent State of Croatia,
which has an official policy of collaboration
0.24 with the occupier.
0.24 However, the resistance is organized in
Yugoslavia. For example, the movement of
0.24 Chetniks seek to restore the monarchy and
collaborate more or less with the German
0.24 occupier at first. On the other hand, the communist
resistance is also organized and tends to align
0.24 on Moscow, at least officially in
the early days of the occupation.
0.24 However, what is more worrying are
the increasingly proven rumors
0.24 to the effect that Jews all over
occupied Europe became the object of
0.24 persecutions and assassinations. For
example, in January, the rumor hovers like
0.24 what Jews are executed in Bucharest by
the fascists of the fearsome Guard of
0.24 Iron. The same month begins the mass
deportation of Austrian Jews to Poland
0.24 ghettos.
0.24 On March 1, Hitler orders the expansion
of the Auschwitz prison camp in Poland,
0.24 then commanded by SS Rudolf Hoss. On
June 23, the day after the invasion of
0.24 the Soviet Union, Hitler arrives at
a new headquarters in Rastenburg,
0.24 located in the middle of a forest, in East Prussia.
He&;ll spend about 800 days there until
0.24 November 1944. The goal being
to be closer to the evolution
0.24 military operations in Russia and, unfortunately,
also to monitor more closely what
0.24 will in time become the "Final
Solution" against the Jews.
0.24 In this respect, from early July 1941, in
the midst of the Soviet invasion, began
0.24 a series of massacres of Jewish populations
around Vilnius, Lithuania. This
0.24 so-called “Poneriai Massacres” result
in the deaths of at least 100,000
0.24 Jews shot or burned alive, these massacres
are periodic and are mainly
0.24 the work of the fearsome Einsatzgruppen,
supported by other S.S. groups and
0.24 Lithuanian collaborators. Precisely,
the leader of the S.S., the sinister
0.24 Heinrich Himmler, takes pleasure in the Jews
extermination and is certainly zealous
0.24 in the execution of what becomes the Final Solution.
0.24 In July, Himmler had another large concentration
camp built, that of Majdanek,
0.24 in Ukraine, while the Jews massacre continues
almost everywhere in the territories
0.24 occupied Eastern Europe. The
same month, moreover, Hitler asked
0.24 Hermann Göring to order Reinhard
Heydrich to submit a general plan of
0.24 costs incurred and the logistical resources
required to complete the final solution
0.24 to what he calls the "Jewish question".
0.24 It was this same Heydrich who, on September 1,
1941, signed a decree obliging all
0.24 Jews from the occupied territories to wear the
Star of David, written on it in German the
0.24 word Jude, Jew. At the same time, the Jews
in the occupied territories are in turn
0.24 under the Nuremberg Laws, which I
discussed in the first episode.
0.24 And the massacres of the Jews continue, let&;s
cite a few examples. End of September, about
0.24 30,000 of them are murdered around Kyiv.
0.24 In October, about 30,000 others suffer
the same fate in Crimea, murdered by
0.24 shot or burned alive, officially in
retaliation for the attack on a high
0.24 officer in the Romanian army. Speaking
of high-ranking, always in October,
0.24 but in France this time, Lieutenant-Colonel
Karl Hotz, the local German commander at
0.24 Nantes, is assassinated, about fifty civilians
are killed in retaliation. This incident
0.24 will unfortunately serve as a “model” for the Germans in
the application of their occupation policies in France.
0.24 Today I take you for a ride
0.24 in 1942. For many historians, this
year marks the height of a war
0.24 truly global. When will it end? No one can predict it.
0.24 One thing is certain, there is action all
over the world. Here&;s the situation
0.24 on January 1, 1942.
0.24 In Europe, first of all, the Axis forces occupy
almost the entire continent apart from
0.24 the British Isles which are still resisting and
which Hitler seems to have given up trying to seize
0.24 to concentrate on a new, major front: the Soviet Union.
0.24 I say "major", because the war on this
front alone consumes at least 70%
0.24 resources of the German army, but the
Third Reich nevertheless occupies very
0.24 vast portions of this immense territory.
The clashes there are wild, ideological
0.24 same. The loss? Appalling on both sides.
0.24 In Africa, the arrival of Marshal Rommel at
the head of the Axis forces is beneficial
0.24 for Italian and German fighters. Rommel
regains the initiative from the British
0.24 who must again devote significant
resources to the protection of Egypt
0.24 and the Suez Canal. The outcome on this
highly mobile front remains uncertain.
0.24 At sea, the battle of the Atlantic is raging
and not necessarily to the advantage
0.24 allies. These suffered terrible losses,
especially in merchant ships laden with
0.24 to supply the British Isles.
0.24 Still on these islands, the Luftwaffe considerably
reduced the frequency of its raids which
0.24 nevertheless remain disturbing and deadly. In
contrast, the Royal Air Force is stepping up
0.24 its bombardments against Germany
and its war industry.
0.24 But the great novelty is the brutal
and shattering entry into the war of
0.24 the Japanese Empire. The assault on
the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in
0.24 the end of 1941 marks the opening of a
whole “new” front: the Pacific Ocean.
0.24 The arrival of the USA in the war
is at the same time a real lifeline
0.24 for the Allies.
0.24 Here we go! World War II continues.
We&;re in 1942!
0.24 Why not, precisely, move to the
Pacific side? Don&;t worry,
0.24 I&;ll come back for a ride in the West, but we
can&;t ignore the seriousness of the situation
0.24 in the Far East since the attack on Pearl Harbor.
0.24 And I tell you, I&;m going to talk about
the main operations on this front in
0.24 1942, but be very attentive to the fact that
the geography, in this theater of operations,
0.24 it&;s not simple.
0.24 Why? Well because this region of the
world is made up of hundreds, if not
0.24 thousands of small islands and atolls
of varying sizes, often separated
0.24 by hundreds, if not thousands of miles right
in the middle of the largest ocean in the
0.24 planet.
0.24 In short, if you have a map of the Pacific
at hand, it&;ll not be a luxury,
0.24 because it can sometimes be difficult to find
one&;s way. Moreover, the Allies didn&;t
0.24 barely time to get up from the punch received
at Pearl Harbor that the Japanese
0.24 attack just about anywhere in the Pacific!
0.24 From the start of the year, the Japanese
attacked the Philippines. Manila falls on
0.24 January 2 and the allied forces, mainly
composed of American and Filipino soldiers,
0.24 are forced to retreat towards the Bataan
peninsula which is now under siege.
0.24 The Japanese also rush into British
Malaya, they progress rapidly to
0.24 the capital Kuala Lumpur, which falls on January
11, and threaten the big island of Borneo,
0.24 today shared between Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei.
0.24 Speaking of Indonesia, the Japanese
set foot in what were then called the
0.24 Dutch East Indies, still in January,
and hold on tight, it&;s not over!
0.24 On January 20, the city of Singapore, located
in the southern end of the malaise peninsula
0.24 is bombarded and also threatened with being conquered.
At the same time, the Japanese attacked
0.24 the town of Rabaul, located in Papua New
Guinea. Need I specify that the Allies
0.24 are completely overwhelmed? At the end of
January, British troops in Malaysia withdraw
0.24 towards Singapore, in the hope of
using the city as a fulcrum to stop
0.24 the march of the Japanese to the south.
0.24 But the task is difficult, if not impossible, because
the Japanese, again, attack everywhere!
0.24 Despite British resistance, Singapore
eventually fell on February 15 after 50
0.24 campaign days. It&;s a real disaster. The Japaneses
0.24 capture at least 130,000 British and
colonial troops despite superiority
0.24 initial numerical on the side of the Allies. Still
at the end of January, the Japanese invade
0.24 Burma and threaten the most important city of
the country, Rangoon which must be abandoned
0.24 in mid-February.
0.24 In the Philippines, the resistance in the
Bataan peninsula continues, but for how many
0.24 time yet? In fact, on February 22,
President Roosevelt ordered Commander
0.24 US troops, General Douglas MacArthur
to evacuate the Philippines.
0.24 Will the Japanese stop there? Well,
no! On February 28, they disembark
0.24 in Java and capture Jakarta a few days later,
the capital of the Dutch East Indies.
0.24 Another worrying element for the Allies:
the conquest of Southeast Asia by
0.24 the Japanese brings them dangerously close
to Australia, in particular because the
0.24 Japanese soldiers land in New Guinea in
March, while continuing their conquest
0.24 of Java and Burma. In mid-March
1942, the Japanese occupied
0.24 Mindanao, the southernmost island of the Philippines
and land in the Solomon Islands, in this
0.24 which appears to be a massive move to encircle Australia.
0.24 The siege, therefore, is tightening. To ward off
the encirclement of Australia, it&;s important
0.24 to resist the Philippines, but it gets complicated.
At late March, early April, the Japanese
0.24 manage to corner 25,000 American and
Filipino soldiers in the Bataan Peninsula.
0.24 The first week of April is marked by
heavy fighting. Americans and Filipinos
0.24 resist as best they can to defend
this last pocket of resistance
0.24 in the Philippines, but the situation seems hopeless.
0.24 Bataan finally falls on April 9. In doing so,
the Japanese, from the start of the campaign
0.24 of the Philippines, hold some 80,000
American and Filipino prisoners.
0.24 These prisoners suffer a sad fate.
May 1, 1942 follows what is called
0.24 the "Bataan Death March", where
Allied prisoners of war are forced
0.24 to walk about 100 kms in appalling
conditions in order to reach
0.24 the prison camps. At least
20,000 of them die on the way!
0.24 And the situation seems hopeless for the
Allies in the Pacific. The Japanese occupy
0.24 the main islands of Southeast Asia
and their navy seeks to challenge
0.24 again that of the Allies, particularly of the USA.
0.24 The first week of May 1942 saw the
first clash between aircraft carriers
0.24 enemies in the Coral Sea, a sea
located northeast of Australia, just
0.24 southern Solomon Islands and eastern Papua New Guinea.
0.24 In terms of battle casualties, this
battle is a Japanese victory,
0.24 but at the same time it&;s the first
major confrontation where we can
0.24 say, without being too mistaken, that the
Allies manage to stop the enemy advance
0.24 in the Pacific. At the very least, the Japanese fail
0.24 not immediately settle in this region
to eventually invade Australia.
0.24 And the battle of the Coral Sea illustrates
certain particularities of the war of the
0.24 Pacific, on which I&;ll return.
0.24 It first shows how huge the forehead is.
For example, belligerents aircraft
0.24 carriers who clash are separated
by several hundred kms in the mids
0.24 of the ocean. So, it&;s difficult, especially
with the technology of the time, to
0.24 spot the enemy fleet and planes.
Finally, about four days after the
0.24 official start of the battle, the opponents
meet each other. Two American aircraft carriers
0.24 confront two Japanese aircraft carriers. Given
the heavy damage suffered by the buildings
0.24 Americans, we can say that the Battle
of the Coral Sea is, at best, a victory
0.24 Japanese tactics, otherwise a draw.
0.24 For the Allies, however, this battle took
on the character of a strategic victory,
0.24 insofar as the Japanese call off their
planned assault on the city of Port
0.24 Moresby, the largest city in Papua New Guinea,
located directly north of the Australian coast.
0.24 What&;s more, I&;ll get to that in a moment,
the Allies manage to repair faster
0.24 their buildings damaged unlike the Japanese
who, moreover, will be deprived
0.24 of these carriers at the Battle
of Midway the next month.
0.24 But overall, the situation for the Allies
is deteriorating, when they stop
0.24 the Japanese in the Coral Sea, they capture
the island of Corregidor in the Philippines,
0.24 thus marking the end of a campaign of several
weeks and the capitulation
0.24 of the last American and Filipino soldiers.
The Japanese take 12,000 prisoners.
0.24 At late May, the Japanese also completed
the conquest of Burma and prepared
0.24 other conquest operations, this time
towards the eastern Pacific Ocean,
0.24 to the United States.
0.24 Clearly, the Japanese want to get closer
to the Hawaiian Islands and the
0.24 American territory, but first they operate a
diversion to a place where, quite frankly,
0.24 we probably wouldn&;t have expected them.
At late May, early June, the Japanese land
0.24 much further north in the Pacific Ocean,
in the Aleutian Islands, near Alaska!
0.24 In fact, the Aleutian Islands are numerous
and the Japanese choose some of them,
0.24 particularly they landed troops on the
islands of Attu and Kiska. In doing so,
0.24 we can say that this is a first landing
on American soil and this occupation
0.24 of a relatively sparsely inhabited
territory will last about a year.
0.24 But as I said, the Aleutian Islands
campaign is more of a diversion,
0.24 because the decisive naval battle being played
out in the Pacific Ocean is that of Midway
0.24 which begins on June 3, 1942.
What is Midway? It&;s an atoll
0.24 that is to say a very small island of barely
6 kms2 located in the middle
0.24 from nowhere!
0.24 In fact, Midway is located about 2,000 kms
northwest of the Hawaiian Islands
0.24 -I know it&;s far, but it&;s one
of the few landmarks!- about
0.24 3,000 kms south of the Aleutian Islands
and at least 4,000 kms east of Japan!
0.24 Clearer?
0.24 This small atoll is of strategic importance,
especially for the Americans, because it
0.24 serves as an outpost at Pearl Harbor.
Midway, with its few airstrips,
0.24 constitutes an important base to extend the
range of operation of the planes and even
0.24 ships in the Pacific,
0.24 because for this battle which begins about
six months to the day after the attack
0.24 of Pearl Harbor, the belligerent Japanese
and Americans need everything that floats,
0.24 and more particularly anything that
floats and can transport planes!
0.24 And for a battle that&;s literally taking place
in the middle of nowhere, the opposing forces
0.24 are considerable. The Americans line up the equivalent
of 3 aircraft carriers grouping together
0.24 some 360 ​​aircraft. On the Japanese side, we&;re talking
about 4 aircraft carriers for 250 aircraft.
0.24 As in the previous month in the Coral Sea,
the initial difficulty consists in spotting
0.24 the enemy fleet. The planes take off from the
aircraft carriers, and also from Midway for the
0.24 Americans, in order to seek an enemy who
seems well hidden in the vast expanse
0.24 of the Pacific Ocean. After long hours of research, the
0.24 belligerents are found. From June 4 to 7,
the battle rages in the sky and at sea.
0.24 The Japanese seek at all costs to capture
Midway to use this atoll as a springboard
0.24 for a future assault on Pearl Harbor.
0.24 The air warfare are unparalleled
in violence so far, hundreds
0.24 of fighters clash and the Americans are
desperate to sink the aircraft carriers
0.24 Japanese with specially designed dive bombers.
0.24 The losses are heavy on both sides, in
addition to the many downed planes crashing
0.24 in mid of the ocean, all the Japanese
aircraft carriers are sinking! Four
0.24 of them are thus lost for only one on the American side.
0.24 This is a terrible blow for the Japanese.
The end of the Battle of Midway, June 7,
0.24 marks a turning point in the war in
the Pacific, it represents maximum
0.24 Japanese progress towards the east. These
will go no further. The Hawaiian Islands
0.24 are now out of reach and the Americans
can think of a gradual reconquest
0.24 of the Pacific.
0.24 Now let&;s take a trip to Russia. Here
too, the situation is at least
0.24 precarious for both sides. Admittedly,
the Soviets managed to partially
0.24 extricate Moscow at the end of 1941, but the
losses suffered are appalling.
0.24 In the first weeks of January, Soviet
Marshal Zhukov launched another
0.24 Moscow clearing offensive. Despite the
still very heavy losses, the Germans
0.24 back about 100 kms from the capital.
0.24 Indeed, we observe that at late January,
the Axis forces retreated over several
0.24 parts of this huge land front, but the
siege of Leningrad continues. Of his
0.24 side, Hitler, despite the recent failures of
his armies, demanded that the offensive be
0.24 renewed. On April 5, he had his Directive No. 41
0.24 which calls for a renewal of the offensives,
this time with the region as its objectives
0.24 of the Caucasus for its oil fields and
possibly the capture of the important
0.24 industrial city of Stalingrad.
0.24 Against this background, in early May, the
Germans gradually reconquered Crimea
0.24 lost some time before and launched a
second offensive to retake Kharkov,
0.24 in Ukraine, in a month-long battle.
0.24 Despite their double numerical superiority,
the Soviet forces suffered
0.24 another crushing defeat. The losses
were catastrophic and Stalin&;s troops
0.24 again have to abandon Kharkov and
reconstitute a new front line much more
0.24 to the East.
0.24 Among the reasons which can explain this
brilliant German victory is that of the
0.24 continued Luftwaffe support to ground forces.
0.24 Moreover, Hitler -and it&;s rare for him-
at times authorizes his generals
0.24 to withdraw their troops for tactical
purposes, if only to outflank
0.24 the enemy from the flanks and facilitate his encirclement.
0.24 Another element which greatly weakens
the Soviet command, in Kharkov as
0.24 elsewhere throughout the war, is the continual
presence of political commissars.
0.24 Political commissars are officers who
scrutinize the quality of work of
0.24 military commanders in the field. Nikita
Khrushchev, who will become after the
0.24 war a leader of the USSR, is one
of these famous commissars.
0.24 At late May, several Soviet armies were
surrounded and destroyed in Kharkov.
0.24 The Germans and their allies advance in
Ukraine and reach the important city
0.24 from Rostov-on-Don. They&;re also advancing
in the Caucasus and heavy fighting has
0.24 course in Sevastopol, Crimea at the end of June.
0.24 Sevastopol finally fell on July 1,
allowing Axis troops to have
0.24 hands a little freer to begin Operation
Fall Blau, the Blue Plan, which
0.24 consists of a massive push to the southeast, towards
the Caucasus and the capture of Stalingrad.
0.24 The famous battle of Stalingrad is coming,
but let&;s momentarily leave the front
0.24 Russia aside, because we must not neglect
the situation in Africa and the Mediterranean.
0.24 The start of the year 1942 in this theater
of operations is marked from January 6
0.24 by another advance of British forces towards
El-Agheila, in Libya. The city represents
0.24 in a way the extreme advance of the
Allied forces towards North Africa,
0.24 as it constitutes a point of departure
for the Axis forces towards Egypt.
0.24 At late January, German Marshal Erwin Rommel went
on the offensive, he takes over El-Agheila
0.24 to the British and its soldiers are
in Benghazi. The British, again,
0.24 must retreat east. The front then seemed to
stabilize in February and the Italo-Germans
0.24 soldiers are again in Gazala, a little west of Tobruk.
0.24 Can you guess? Yes! The island of Malta
is bombed again! And it continues!
0.24 The Allies are desperately trying to resupply the
island and provide it with the fighters whose
0.24 it needs so much to repel the
incessant assaults of the Luftwaffe.
0.24 The first six months of 1942 are critical
in Malta: food, ammunition, gasoline
0.24 and planes are missing. Recall that possession
of the island is absolutely vital for anyone
0.24 is at war in North Africa and needs supplies and air support
0.24 on this front. Moreover, in a gesture of impatience,
0.24 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
instructs his generals in Africa on 14
0.24 April to resume the offensive, if only
to take the pressure off Malta.
0.24 Did I say Malta is under pressure? For
example, on April 20, the American ship
0.24 USS Wasp delivers 47 British Spitfire fighters.
Well, guess what! They&;re almost all
0.24 destroyed on the ground by the Luftwaffe! The
situation on the island is downright unbearable.
0.24 Glimmer of hope, but three weeks later,
this same American aircraft carrier
0.24 delivers another shipment of Spitfires to Malta,
this time they aren&;t destroyed on the ground
0.24 and they make a severe fight against the Luftwaffe
which is forced to abandon its bombardments
0.24 of day against the island.
0.24 Nevertheless, the Allies can consider themselves
lucky since the Axis forces postpone
0.24 indefinitely the invasion of Malta at the
end of May. Marshal Rommel goes anyway
0.24 of a new spring offensive in Gazala
after a gap of almost three months.
0.24 Axis forces attack across the entire front
stretching from Tobruk to the north
0.24 to Bir-Hakeim in the south, inland.
Quickly, the Free French forces
0.24 troops defending the southern end of
the front at Bir-Hakeim are in difficulty.
0.24 This is normal, because Rommel puts the pack there.
He seeks to circumvent the southern flank of the front
0.24 ally in order to take Tobruk from the rear
and reopen an invasion route towards Egypt.
0.24 At late May, early June, heavy fighting
takes place along the front line
0.24 from Gazala and Tobruk, to the south towards
Bir-Hakeim. Rommel has difficulty to
0.24 take Tobruk, in particular because the
British have armored divisions and because
0.24 of the presence of numerous minefields in the desert.
0.24 Moreover, the improvement of the situation in Malta
for the Allies complicates at the same time
0.24 supplying the Axis forces in Africa.
Nevertheless, on June 1, Rommel
0.24 keeps up the pressure and manages to bypass
part of the British front to the east.
0.24 A few days later, the British, who were
threatened with encirclement, attempted
0.24 a counter-offensive which failed due to
the terrible losses of armor suffered in
0.24 minefields and against the German anti-tank guns.
0.24 For example, on June 5, one of the
British armored brigades alone lost
0.24 50 of its 70 tanks! The British and
their allies then considered another
0.24 retreat to Egypt. On June 9, Rommel renews the offensive
0.24 against the Free French at Bir-Hakeim,
which is literally a thorn in the
0.24 foot of the Axis forces advance to the east.
0.24 Despite everything, the situation of the Allies
in North Africa became critical in mid-June,
0.24 although the supply situation in Malta is improving
a little bit, Rommel is moving forward
0.24 quick. For his part, Churchill insisted that
0.24 Tobruk is held at all costs, while military
logic dictates that they must evacuate
0.24 what remains of the armies to Egypt while there&;s yet time.
0.24 Unsurprisingly, the city of Tobruk is once
again placed under siege, although a
0.24 part of the British troops in the
city manages to escape to Egypt.
0.24 The city finally fell on June 21.
Axis forces capture about 35,000
0.24 prisoners. It&;s a great victory which deals a
heavy blow to the morale of the Allies, the
0.24 way to Egypt seems open again. For their
part, the Allies retreated and had to
0.24 imperative to create a new front
line. This is fixed in a small
0.24 locality whose name will soon become emblematic
of the war in Africa: El-Alamein.
0.24 I&;ll come back to it.
0.24 In the meantime, we&;re going back to Asia!
0.24 We left this front at Midway where, remember, the
Americans have just stopped the Japanese
0.24 advance in the Pacific. “Stop” is a big word. In the facts,
0.24 the Allies can hardly claim to regain control of the initiative,
0.24 i.e., the strategic agenda because
the Japanese continue their attacks
0.24 somewhere else.
0.24 We&;re on July 3, 1942. I ask you to remember
a name which, like El-Alamein in
0.24 Africa, like Stalingrad in Russia, will
become emblematic of the savagery of war
0.24 in the Pacific jungle: Guadalcanal. Wait!
You&;re going to tell me that Guadalcanal
0.24 is probably another Pacific island
just big enough to house a family
0.24 two adults, two children and a dog? Well, almost!
0.24 With some 5,000 kms2, Guadalcanal
is an island that is still very
0.24 larger than Midway, it&;s the largest island
in the Solomon Islands, bordered
0.24 to the southwest by the Coral Sea which
lies between these islands and Australia.
0.24 On July 3, therefore, the Japanese controlled
the western part of Guadalcanal and they pursued
0.24 their advance into New Guinea, where the
eventual capture of Port Moresby in
0.24 the southeastern part of this island, combined
with the control of Guadalcanal, would constitute
0.24 an excellent starting point for the conquest of Australia.
0.24 Naturally, on the side of the Allies, this must
be prevented! On August 7, American soldiers,
0.24 mostly from the Marine Corps, landed
in force at Guadalcanal, in
0.24 what appears as a first step in the
terrestrial reconquest of the Japanese
0.24 possessions in the Pacific. And there,
hold on tight, I tell you, that
0.24 go hard! The war in the Pacific has this
particularity that they often fight in
0.24 the jungle. This normally constitutes an
already hostile environment: it&;s hot,
0.24 it&;s extremely humid, mosquitoes and vermin are everywhere.
0.24 What&;s more, the Americans who land at
Guadalcanal face an enemy who isn&;t
0.24 only is aggressive, but which, generally,
simply doesn&;t capitulate. Japanese
0.24 soldiers people have a notion of honor and
sacrifice that in no way authorizes
0.24 defeat or withdrawal from the
enemy, let alone capitulation.
0.24 But, contrary to popular belief,
Japanese soldiers in 1942 weren&;t
0.24 much more familiar than the Allies
to fight in the jungle, before
0.24 1941, the Japanese experience of war was
limited to the physical environment
0.24 from mainland China, where the jungle is much rarer.
0.24 That said, the Americans are reinforcing Guadalcanal,
just as the Australians are doing the same in
0.24 New Guinea from August. Americans in Guadalcanal build
0.24 an airfield in one of the few flat
parts of the island, the land is
0.24 called Henderson Field. Hold it,
because Henderson Field is becoming a
0.24 true obsession for the Japanese, its capture
would allow them to extend the radius
0.24 of their air attacks against Australia,
as well as against Allies naval air
0.24 units in the Southeast Pacific.
0.24 On August 21, heavy fighting for his capture took
place, the Japanese soldiers go there from several
0.24 charges, bayonets to the guns and in close
ranks. These are violent, wild charges
0.24 and better known as banzai, these
attacks are suicidal and it&;s the
0.24 aim. Henderson Field and the nearby Tenaru
and Matanikau rivers are subject to such
0.24 assaults in late August and through much of the fall of 1942.
0.24 Meanwhile, in New Guinea, the Japanese attack
Port Moresby. The Australian resistance
0.24 overcomes these assaults and the Japanese
finally give up this objective. The battle
0.24 of Milne Bay, near Port Moresby, was
among the earliest land victories
0.24 of the Allies in the Pacific.
0.24 But the Japanese are keeping up the pressure, especially
at Guadalcanlal. From September 12 to 14,
0.24 they launch a second offensive with the
aim of capturing ridges that overlook
0.24 Henderson Field. Banzai charges mostly unfold
0.24 at night and they increase the pressure on the
Americans who are defending the perimeter
0.24 from the landing strip. On September 14,
the Japanese temporarily retreated
0.24 to replenish their ranks.
0.24 Indeed, because they&;are renewing their offensive,
this time on September 23. The goal? Still
0.24 Henderson Field, to which are added various
attempts to take the ridges around
0.24 the airport. During the first two weeks of October,
0.24 the Japanese attack again – Come on, I&;ll
let you guess! Eh yes! Henderson
0.24 Field!- But the Americans resist! In fact,
0.24 after this other failure, the Japanese
now give up new offensives against
0.24 Henderson Field. At early November, they
began a gradual withdrawal towards the
0.24 west of Guadalcanal.
0.24 The beginning of November was therefore marked
by a series of American counter-attacks
0.24 aimed at expelling the Japanese from the island.
Henderson Field eventually cleared of
0.24 the enemy presence, but the difficulty
now lies in tracking down the Japanese
0.24 scattered in the jungle. During
the months of November and December,
0.24 the Americans are busy fighting an
enemy buried in the jungle, in
0.24 bunkers, not to mention the difficult surrounding conditions.
0.24 At the end of December, the Japanese
were about to abandon Guadalcanal and we
0.24 can reasonably think that the threat
of an invasion of Australia is momentarily
0.24 ruled out.
0.24 So that&;s it for the war in the Pacific in
1942. Now I&;m taking you back to Russia,
0.24 where the last months of the year see an
intensity and savagery of the battles
0.24 still unmatched. There too, it brews! Although
the northern part of the front resists
0.24 still under the siege of Leningrad, and
the center front sees the release of the
0.24 capital Moscow, the situation in the southern part of
the front located at the crossroads of Stalingrad
0.24 and the Caucasus worries the Soviet command.
0.24 The progress of the Axis forces in this sector
since the fall of Kharkov has been relatively
0.24 good. At late July- early August, the
Red Army retreated to settle behind
0.24 the Don River.
0.24 The important industrial city of Stalingrad
becomes a “natural” objective, whose
0.24 capture would affect the Soviet war
economy, this capture would also carry
0.24 a blow to the prestige and morale of the army
and the population -after all, the city
0.24 is named after Stalin-, his capture would
also secure a passage to the Caucasus.
0.24 In short, the Axis forces have an objective
in mind, whose name becomes emblematic
0.24 the savagery of the fighting on the Eastern Front,
and in particular the fighting in the middle
0.24 urban: Stalingrad!
0.24 The progress towards this strategic
city at early August 1942 seems well
0.24 unfold for the Germans and their Italian,
Hungarian and Romanian allies. However,
0.24 the resistance becomes more lively
as they approaches the suburbs.
0.24 From the outset, a bit like in Leningrad,
civilians, and even children, were conscripted
0.24 in the Red Army. Ten days after the start
of the fighting, Stalingrad was surrounded,
0.24 at least the part of the city located west of the Volga River.
0.24 The Germans advance in the city. The Soviets retreat, eventually
0.24 stand with their backs to the Volga wall. They
desperately resist, but above all try to convey
0.24 reinforcements in the city. The catch is
that the only way to do this is to place
0.24 troops on barges crossing the Volga River.
0.24 The problem? As you can imagine, these barges
and other maritime craft are subject
0.24 to bombardments and grapeshot from
Luftwaffe planes. Despite heavy losses
0.24 suffered, some reinforcements arrive in the city.
0.24 The extent of Soviet resistance,
combined with the deterioration of
0.24 meteorological conditions, forced the
Germans to take a break in mid-October.
0.24 The battle has last more than a month
already and the city has still not fallen.
0.24 On the contrary, the arrival of reinforcements,
whose crossing of the Volga becomes easier
0.24 as the river freezes, allows the Red Army
to go there for a first counter-offensive
0.24 on November 12, two months after the start of the battle.
0.24 They fight in the streets, in the alleys,
in the industrial buildings, in the
0.24 grain silos, in apartment buildings!
At times, the Germans control such
0.24 floor of a building, while the Soviets
own another floor and vice versa.
0.24 They fight in schools, in daycares, even in the sewers. Everywhere!
0.24 It&;s of course for the Soviets to raise
the siege of the city. The Marshall
0.24 Joukov, who directs the defense of the city,
then launches Operation Uranus which consists
0.24 not only to liberate the city proper,
but to encircle the Axis forces
0.24 who are there. At the end of November,
the German general staff and
0.24 the soldiers in the city make the disturbing
observation that the city is now surrounded
0.24 and that the Soviet siege is tightening.
Of course, supplies no longer enter,
0.24 ammunition and food are lacking, as well as medical equipment.
0.24 On November 22, General von Paulus, who
commanded the German Sixth Army, pinned down
0.24 in Stalingrad, informs Hitler that his
300,000 men are completely surrounded.
0.24 Is it catastrophic? In principle yes, but
if the Luftwaffe manages to get supplies,
0.24 because an airstrip is still available, and a clearing operation
0.24 is attempted, then von Paulus&; men could
contribute to their own extirpation.
0.24 One of the problems is that, precisely, the
Luftwaffe has more and more difficulties
0.24 to fulfill the missions and mandates
assigned to it. The Battle of Britain,
0.24 that of Malta, the defense of the Reich against
Allied bombing and the important needs
0.24 of the Russian front mean that resources are
stretched to the limit.
0.24 Worse still, and suddenly returning to
his old habits, Hitler formally forbade
0.24 General von Paulus to capitulate to the enemy.
0.24 On November 25, the encirclement of
Stalingrad stabilized, i.e., it became
0.24 more efficient, more airtight. Again, Hitler
reiterates his prohibition to capitulate.
0.24 But the Germans must try all for all.
From December 12 to 23, the general staff
0.24 triggers Operation Winter Storm, whose
goal is to break through the encirclement
0.24 Stalingrad Soviet. All Axis resources in the game
0.24 south of the Russian front are put to use,
despite the clear numerical superiority
0.24 of the Soviets on the order of 3 to 1.
0.24 On the first day of the offensive, the situation
looked promising, as the Soviets retreated
0.24 and barely manage to hold the siege,
but their resistance strengthens once
0.24 the shock had been absorbed and faced with the virtual
inaction of the German Sixth Army in Stalingrad
0.24 which is too weak and busy holding its own positions.
0.24 If, in Berlin, they keep the hope of helping
the Sixth Army in Stalingrad, the reality
0.24 of the soldiers on the ground is
hopeless. Moreover, German forces
0.24 present in the Caucasus began to withdraw
towards the west, particularly
0.24 to in turn avoid being trapped on the peninsula.
0.24 As for Stalingrad, the city has not yet
been captured by the Soviets, this
0.24 is only a matter of time. But remember
this: the trap is indeed closed!
0.24 And what about the situation in the Mediterranean
and Africa in the second half of 1942?
0.24 Can Axis forces in Egypt hope to capture Alexandria
0.24 and, who knows, go back to the Soviet Caucasus?
0.24 In fact, when the Germans in Russia beat the Soviets in
0.24 Kharkov in the summer of 1942, Rommel&;s
troops in Africa are in Marsa
0.24 Matruh, Egypt, 225 kilometers west of Alexandria.
0.24 In just a few days, they advance
to stop at El-Alamein, a locality
0.24 about 100 kms from Alexandria, due to
lack of supplies due to exhaustion.
0.24 Rommel has no choice but to take
a break, a break the Allies seek
0.24 to exploit. On July 26, they launched the
first battle of El-Alamein which, unfortunately
0.24 for them, is a failure, a failure which cost
them dearly in armored vehicles, but which
0.24 at least the merit of stabilizing the front.
0.24 Rommel isn&;t in a position to go further
for the reasons mentioned above,
0.24 But that&;s not all, the German general
is aware that since the entry
0.24 in the war of the USA, the risks that
the Allies send more reinforcements
0.24 on his African front are very real.
Indeed, from August 5, American high
0.24 command is planning Operation Torch,
the objective of which is to land troops
0.24 in North Africa by the west of the
continent. I&;ll come back to it.
0.24 In the meantime, Rommel must settle the Egyptian
file as quickly as possible. On August 10, he
0.24 tries a new operation to take El-Alamein.
Failure. Three weeks later,
0.24 he attacks south of El-Alamein, at
Alam-el-Halfah. Again, failure.
0.24 Rommel fails to bend the Allies in
Egypt before the arrival of the
0.24 Americans in Africa. Moreover, the
air superiority of the Allies is
0.24 increasingly make felt as Luftwaffe
pressure on Malta gradually eased.
0.24 The battle raging around El-Alamein in
early September 1942 allowed the new
0.24 British commander, General Bernard Montgomery
to stabilize the front despite
0.24 serious tank losses. Moreover, the British commander tried
0.24 to use new tactics to give their blinds a new support role
0.24 to the infantry instead of exposing them unnecessarily
head first in the middle of the desert and
0.24 minefields.
0.24 Faced with Montgomery, Rommel understands
that he has just lost the initiative,
0.24 control of strategic agenda no longer
belongs to him. Knowing that Americans
0.24 soon arrive in Africa, Montgomery takes
his time to reconstruct his front.
0.24 The recovery of El-Alamein may wait for some time.
0.24 A rumor also circulates that Rommel would no
longer be present in Africa. In effect,
0.24 we learned on September 23 that he was
repatriated to Germany to follow
0.24 medical treatments. So, tThe Axis
forces lose a very high quality leader
0.24 and adored by his men.
0.24 On the other hand, on October 22, on the West
African coast, an American general named
0.24 Mark Clark, the general&;s deputy and
future president of the USA, Dwight
0.24 Eisenhower, secretly landed in Algeria
to discuss with French officers
0.24 of the Vichy regime, as well as to start
talks with the local resistance.
0.24 Clark sets out to find out how well
Vichy&;s faltering forces will hold up
0.24 to an American landing in force on the
North-West African coasts and what type
0.24 support can provide local resistance. Clark
receives certain guarantees to the effect
0.24 that the Vichy army in Africa will
offer little or no resistance.
0.24 One thing is certain, it&;s now obvious that
the siege is tightening on the forces of
0.24 the Axis in North Africa. The American
landing on the west coast is scheduled for
0.24 soon, as Montgomery prepares to move into Egypt.
0.24 Thus began the second great battle of El-Alamein
on October 23, 1942. It was a deluge of
0.24 fire beating down on the Axis positions,
the Allies artillery pounded incessantly
0.24 while the infantry advances and
can also count on cannon fire
0.24 naval units along the coast.
0.24 The Allies are going for broke. They
must once and for all expel the
0.24 Axis forces from Egypt, permanently
clear the Suez Canal as well as
0.24 the Near and Middle East. Nearly
200,000 soldiers attack, supported
0.24 by 1,000 tanks and 750 aircraft against
just over 100,000 Italian-German soldiers.
0.24 The next day, October 24, convoys left
the USA and England in the direction of
0.24 North Africa, in what becomes the start of Operation Torch.
0.24 The same year, the Battle of El-Alamein
continued, despite heavy losses in
0.24 shielded. And believe it or not, Rommel,
who is in bad shape as we know, returns
0.24 urgently to Africa to regain his command!
0.24 “Too little too late”, you&;ll tell me:
the Axis front at El-Alamein is breached.
0.24 Rommel&;s arrival only delays the inevitable, which is to order
0.24 a general retreat at the beginning of November.
0.24 A few days after the official end of the
second battle of El-Alamein, the operation
0.24 Torch was carried out on November 8,
1942. Allied forces landed on
0.24 the coasts of Morocco and Algeria then under Vichy control.
0.24 The local pro-allied resistance also came into
action and attacked the headquarters in particular.
0.24 of Vichy, thus helping to facilitate the Allied landing.
0.24 Two days later, on November 10, the
Allies captured the city of Oran and
0.24 many French naval units located in the port are sunk.
0.24 The Allies also land troops near the border with Tunisia, the
0.24 numerous French units on the spot offered
practically no resistance and joined
0.24 mainly the Allied camp. In Egypt, once the front of El-Alamein
0.24 pierced, Montgomery continued the advance
westward and entered Libya towards
0.24 November 10.
0.24 Tobruk was definitively liberated on the 13th,
Benghazi on the 20th, which led Churchill to
0.24 utter another of his famous quotes:
"This isn&;t the end. It&;s not even the
0.24 beginning of the end. But it&;s,
perhaps, the end of the beginning."
0.24 In the end, the Axis forces beat in
full retreat, still towards the west,
0.24 to Tunisia. Unsurprisingly, at the beginning
of December, we witness an intensification
0.24 fighting in this country which had
hitherto been relatively spared.
0.24 As in Stalingrad at the same time, the
Axis forces are caught in a vice, a vice
0.24 certainly much wider, but which narrows
in the west as in the east to converge
0.24 to Tunisia. In mid-December, Rommel abandoned his traditional
0.24 starting point of El-Agheila, where he
used to start his African campaigns
0.24 since the spring of 1941. The order
is given to the Axis forces to move
0.24 to Tripoli.
0.24 In doing so, the German general intends
to gain time to establish a new front
0.24 on a position nicknamed the Mareth Line,
in the south of Tunisia, not far from the
0.24 border with Libya. But Rommel knows
only too well that he and his
0.24 soldiers risk being trapped in Tunisia.
Why? For the simple reason
0.24 that on the “western” front of Africa,
the Allies, which are mainly composed
0.24 of American soldiers, rush quickly towards Tunis, the capital.
0.24 While on the “eastern” front,
the Allies, essentially troops
0.24 of the British Empire veterans of El-Alamein,
quickly converge on Tripoli and the border
0.24 Tunisian. This is the situation in Africa as Christmas arrives.
0.24 And what about the situation on the
“Western” front, i.e., in West Europe?
0.24 Is there still something going on in
this theater of operations in 1942
0.24 since the fall of France two years earlier? Well, yes!
0.24 On March 28, British commandos launched the
very audacious and suicidal operation
0.24 Truck against the French port of Saint-Nazaire.
About 600 men take part in the operation
0.24 and they manage to neutralize the port
facilities for the rest of the war
0.24 from the city.
0.24 Almost all participants are killed,
wounded or captured in an operation
0.24 which consists of stuffing explosives into a freighter,
the HMS Campbeltown, then driving it into
0.24 the port until it all explodes!
Naturally, a suicidal operation by
0.24 sort has a nevertheless noble, if not rational
objective, namely the neutralization
0.24 French ports overlooking the Atlantic,
ports that serve as bases for Germans
0.24 submarines. What&;s more, this type of operation constrains
0.24 the German occupiers in France to remain
alert, to remain on their guard, because
0.24 the Allies don&;t give up the idea that one
day, even a distant one, they&;ll return to
0.24 fight in France to free her.
0.24 And somewhat in this light, the military
event that draws attention to the
0.24 western front in 1942 is definitely
the raid against the port city
0.24 French from Dieppe, in Normandy, on August 19.
0.24 On this date, the Allies launched Operation
Jubilee, which consisted of raiding
0.24 few hours against the city, capture it,
test its defenses and, above all, assess
0.24 the technical feasibility of a larger
scale landing of troops on the
0.24 continent.
0.24 More generally, it&;s also a question of raising
the morale of the Allies, of restoring
0.24 a certain hope to the French, and to calm Stalin&;s
grumbling who demanded, not without reason,
0.24 the opening of a second front in the west.
The mission is essentially entrusted to the
0.24 Canadian soldiers, whose ground
forces haven&;t been tested since the
0.24 outbreak of hostilities. It&;s expected that about
5,000 Canadian infantry supported by about
0.24 1,000 British commandos landed on Dieppe beach on August 19.
0.24 And this first offensive action of the
Canadians is a real fiasco! At least 900 of
0.24 they&;re killed on the beach, 2,000 are
taken prisoner and only a handful manage
0.24 to go to England. The failure of the Dieppe raid can generally
0.24 be explained by an allocation of too
few means and resources compared to
0.24 to far too ambitious goals. Ground
troops are left to fend for themselves,
0.24 naval support is lacking, and the Royal Air
Force is taught a lesson by the Luftwaffe
0.24 that day.
0.24 The tanks are literally bogged down on
the pebble beach and the infantry must
0.24 advance under the lethal fire of cannons,
mortars and machine guns that allow them
0.24 surround it from two cliffs that converge on the beach.
0.24 Despite all, it&;s possible to draw valuable lessons
from the Dieppe raid, these lessons -it&;s hoped-
0.24 should be used to improve amphibious assault
techniques and, who knows, maybe
0.24 one day see the possibility of a major landing in France.
0.24 In another vein, in the chapter of
the naval air war, the year 1942
0.24 is also rich in twists and turns, like ground operations.
0.24 But first, unsurprisingly, the island
of Malta continues to be regularly
0.24 bombarded. Moreover, at the beginning of January,
it&;s estimated that it&;s more often bombarded
0.24 than London! Naturally, the Allies don&;t let them
0.24 to do that. Their aerial bombardments against
the industrial potential of the Axis countries
0.24 intensify.
0.24 For example, on March 13, a Royal Air
Force raid on Essen severely damaged
0.24 the city, just like another attack on Lübeck
where, in the latter case, no less
0.24 30% of the city is completely destroyed much to Hitler&;s chagrin.
0.24 In April and May, the Luftwaffe in Europe
went on further raids against the British Isles
0.24 in response to the escalating attacks
on Germany. However, the effects
0.24 are much lower than during the 1940 blitz.
0.24 It was especially in the spring and summer
of 1942 that the Allies really increased
0.24 the rate of the bombardments against Germany.
We then undertake a type of bombardment
0.24 which we can call “the 1,000”, i.e.,
not far from 1,000 bombers are deployed
0.24 at the same time for the same mission! Yes, 1000!
0.24 One of the first attacks of this series of
“1,000” takes place on May 30 against Cologne
0.24 where, to be more precise, 850 RAF
bombers attack the town. Early June,
0.24 the city of Bremen also suffers a raid of the "1000".
0.24 Another new fact: on July 4, a first bombardment
carried out by American aircraft
0.24 takes place against Germany, while the pace
of raids by the British intensifies.
0.24 Another new fact? Towards the end of July,
the Allied bombers were increasingly
0.24 equipped with incendiary bombs, i.e.,
bombs whose purpose is neither more nor
0.24 less than to cause infernos which not
only must deal a blow against the
0.24 industrial installations, but which reach civilian
populations without too much difficulty.
0.24 From a strategic perspective, in October,
the USA and Great Britain agree
0.24 on a risk-sharing bombing policy. For example, it&;s
0.24 agreed that American bombers now carry
out daytime raids, while their
0.24 British counterparts attack at night.
0.24 Whether conducted by day or by night,
bombing missions include their
0.24 equivalent shares of risk. During the day,
the targets are easier to see, of course,
0.24 but bombers are more exposed to the
accuracy of enemy fighter fire
0.24 and anti-aircraft batteries. The
night? Well the targets are obviously
0.24 harder to spot, but the effect of
enemy fighters decreases somewhat,
0.24 although the effectiveness of anti-aircraft
artillery barrages isn&;t changed too much.
0.24 On the high seas, the year 1942 obviously
saw an intensification of clashes,
0.24 if only by the opening of a new and
immense front in the Pacific Ocean,
0.24 but in the Atlantic the Allies
again experienced days of misery.
0.24 With the entry into the war of the USA,
the German submarines no longer hesitate
0.24 to attack any cargo ship in US territorial waters.
0.24 The Allies again seem to have difficulty
coordinating anti-submarine warfare well,
0.24 in particular because we have problems in the
allocation of resources given the extent
0.24 from the front and the training of marines
is done quickly given the urgency
0.24 of the situation. Unsurprisingly, Allied losses increase
0.24 and territorial waters once considered "safe" are now part of
0.24 areas at risk of attack. For example, the St. Lawrence estuary,
0.24 Canada, became from 1942 a so-called “dangerous” zone.
0.24 This battle of the St. Lawrence didn&;t
officially end until November 1944. Many
0.24 supply cargo ships bound for Europe are sunk by submarines
0.24 which sometimes come dangerously close to the Canadian coast.
0.24 It was precisely these terrible losses in
naval convoys that compelled the Allies
0.24 improve their strategies and tactics.
It ends up giving some results,
0.24 but the toll of losses remained very heavy in the fall.
0.24 In the Mediterranean, Allied convoys
continue to be sunk. For example, around
0.24 Malta, two supply convoys are literally
pulverized by the Luftwaffe
0.24 on July 3 and August 13, but the supply of
the island resumes again in the fall.
0.24 Still in the Mediterranean, in the context
of the landing of the Allied forces in
0.24 North Africa, no less than 77 units of the French
navy were scuttled on November 27, mainly
0.24 in the ports of the south of France.
0.24 The objective is to prevent these ships from
falling into the hands of the Germans who come
0.24 to invade the free zone a few days before.
Moreover, the scuttling of the French fleet
0.24 is partly the consequence of the defection
of Admiral François Darlan, who was then
0.24 the highest French officer in Africa,
he signs an armistice with the Allies,
0.24 but he was assassinated in Algiers on December 24, 1942.
0.24 In the Pacific, the naval war also raged
in 1942. To name but a few cases,
0.24 mention the Battle of Salvo Island in
Guadalcanal on July 3. The Allies
0.24 suffered a defeat with more than 1,000 marines killed.
0.24 However, the latter won a partial victory
on October 11 and 12 at the battle
0.24 from Cape Esperance to the Solomon Islands, opposite
the northern tip of Guadalcanal. Americans
0.24 suffer fewer losses there, but the
Japanese manage to land troops in
0.24 one of their last attempts to control this strategic island.
0.24 Japanese and US navies clash again
in late October and mid-November
0.24 around Guadalcanal.
0.24 The Japanese still want to strengthen the
island, keep the pressure on Henderson Field,
0.24 but the scale of their losses, which are more difficult
to replace, indicates that in the short and medium
0.24 terms, the Americans regain control of the situation.
0.24 Now I want to take a moment to rush through some events
0.24 in relation on the home front, as well as the situation on
0.24 the diplomatic front in 1942. First,
the situation of the Jews – we don&;t
0.24 doubt– is far from improving. For example,
on January 15, those who live in
0.24 the Lodz ghetto in Poland are deported
to a concentration camp. Some
0.24 days later, on the 20th, the infamous
secret conference takes place in Berlin
0.24 from Wannsee.
0.24 The head of the Reich Central Security Office,
Reinhard Heydrich and the Nazis of
0.24 different departments, ministries and
organizations officially decide to
0.24 the "Final Solution" to the so-called
"Jewish problem", a solution that
0.24 initially consists of a relocation to Poland
of the deported Jews and then to their
0.24 outright extermination.
0.24 Do the Jews let them do it so easily?
Well no! Despite the massacres perpetrated
0.24 on a daily basis, some of them resist.
This is particularly the case of
0.24 the United Organization of Partisans,
the FPO, under its Polish acronym.
0.24 Founded in January 1942, the FPO consists of a group
of Jewish resistance fighters from the ghetto of
0.24 Vilnius, Lithuania. It becomes the first
Jewish resistance organization of its kind,
0.24 with a motto that is clear, to say the least:
refusing to "let oneself be led by the Nazis as
0.24 sheep to the slaughterhouse”.
0.24 And in this same perspective of internment
of populations, this time in the USA,
0.24 in February, the US government considers
the idea of ​​​​imprisoning Japanese
0.24 citizens, an idea that takes effect the same
month with the detention of at least 120,000
0.24 citizens of Japanese descent.
0.24 Back in Europe, the one who organizes the
Final Solution, and possible dolphin of Hitler,
0.24 Reinhard Heydrich, is victim of an
attack by Czechoslovak commandos
0.24 in Prague on May 27. He died a few days
later and his death caused strong
0.24 reprisals against the civilian population.
And don&;t believe that the death of Heydrich
0.24 suddenly put a stop to the Final Solution,
on the contrary, it&;s accelerating and
0.24 rumors circulate to the effect that gas
would be used in the concentration camps
0.24 to kill the Jews; that&;s what its saids…
0.24 Meanwhile, the deportations continue. This is
particularly the case in France where, the
0.24 July 16, about 13,000 French Jews
are victims of the Vel’d’Hiv roundup
0.24 to possibly be deported to Auschwitz thanks
to the collaboration of the Vichy
0.24 regime. Moreover, this French collaboration
0.24 to the Nazi regime doesn&;t only include the deportation
of the country&;s Jews, under the Petainist regime.
0.24 in September, the Compulsory Labor Service,
the STO, was created, which sends and deports
0.24 in Germany hundreds of thousands
of workers who feed the workforce
0.24 of the Reich factories.
0.24 The year 1942 was also marked by
many technological advances. In
0.24 addition to the progress recorded in terms of
more traditional weapons, we&;re witnessing
0.24 to a small revolution in weapons of mass destruction.
0.24 For example, June 18 marks the official start of
the Manhattan Project in the USA, the project
0.24 is intended to be a more scientific and
organized approach to producing the first
0.24 atomic weapons. A first nuclear reactor
was installed at the end of the year by
0.24 a team from the University of Chicago
as part of the Manhattan Project.
0.24 For their part, the Germans aren&;t left
out. On October 3, it&;s witnessing a first
0.24 successful flight of a missile, the A4. It&;s
said that the missile, if it becomes operational,
0.24 would have a range of at least 150 kms,
which would be enough to hit England
0.24 from the mainland.
0.24 And to conclude, in the final stretch of
this episode, I remind you of certain events
0.24 beacons of the year 1942 on what is
commonly called the diplomatic front.
0.24 First, on January 1, the United Nations
Declaration was signed in Washington
0.24 by 26 signatory countries which undertake
to continue the war against the forces of
0.24 the Axis. This statement originates from the
0.24 Atlantic Charter which was signed in
1941 and it&;ll also become the basis
0.24 of the founding of the United Nations in June 1945.
0.24 On April 29, Hitler summons Mussolini
and senior Italian leaders to a
0.24 conference being held in Salzburg,
Austria. Hitler asks his partner
0.24 more reinforcements from the Axis for the
bogged down military campaign in Russia,
0.24 at the same time, Hitler seeks to force
Mussolini to align his strategy due
0.24 the many military setbacks of the Italian
armies since the start of hostilities.
0.24 Feeling that the tide is gradually turning
in favor of the Allies, on May 21, in London,
0.24 Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov meets Churchill. The Soviet
0.24 outlines to the British leader the demands of
his country, in particular territorial demands
0.24 relatively greedy for the post-war period.
0.24 Without being able to promise everything, Churchill
nevertheless accepted, on May 26, to sign a treaty
0.24 with the USSR in which Great Britain undertakes
not to conclude a separate peace
0.24 with the Axis, but the British
Prime Minister is unable to promise
0.24 leader Stalin the definitive opening of
a second front in the West in 1942.
0.24 As we can see, nothing is definitively
decided when 1942 ends,
0.24 Axis forces still occupy large
portions of territory in Europe
0.24 and in Asia despite significant declines
in Africa. These are always a
0.24 serious threat to the seas.
0.24 We also realize that the world has been at war for more
than three years already. It&;s long! And it&;s far from over.
0.24 War is raging on all continents.
0.24 She seems, I say "she seems", to have reached
a paroxysm of violence and horror.
0.24 Are there any signs that lead us to
believe that the war may end early
0.24 or late? Maybe, but you have to have a
good dose of optimism and be an attentive
0.24 observer. On the side of France, to begin with, the
0.24 release isn&;t scheduled for tomorrow morning.
The Bitter Failure of Anglo-Canadian Forces
0.24 during the Dieppe raid reminds us that a
possible amphibious operation in the west
0.24 Europe needs to be better planned and better resourced.
0.24 In Russia, it&;s now accepted that the Red Army
has managed, not without difficulty,
0.24 to definitively halt the advance of the
German armies and their allies. Sign
0.24 encouraging for the Soviets: the Battle of
Stalingrad is over. The victory is won
0.24 on this part of the forehead.
In the Pacific theater of operations,
0.24 there too, one can reasonably think that
the Japanese will not go further.
0.24 The battles of Midway and Guadalcanal
mark the extreme advances of the Japanese
0.24 troops. The Allies are now in a logic
of reconquering lost territories,
0.24 regaining control of the strategic agenda.
0.24 In Africa, nothing is going well for the
Axis forces. These beat clearly in
0.24 retreat since their defeat at El-Alamein,
Egypt. They retreat to Tunisia where
0.24 they must now face the allied
forces arriving both from Egypt
0.24 and Algeria. At sea, especially in the Atlantic Ocean,
0.24 the convoy situation deteriorates for the
Allies. The German U-Boats are making
0.24 ravages. The Allies are trying by all means
to improve the protection of their
0.24 convoys, but air cover is poor
and convoys are often left behind,
0.24 without adequate protection.
0.24 In the air, the situation remains uncertain.
The Japanese and German air forces constitute
0.24 always serious threats. Its notes in Europe
that the rate of Anglo-American bombardments
0.24 against the Axis military industry
is growing. The bombings become
0.24 almost daily.
0.24 We&;re now in 1943. Come on! The war continues! We go back!
0.24 Let&;s take a trip to Russia first. Clearly,
things are heating up there at the start
0.24 of 1943. From the month of January, we notice
that the German forces in the Caucasus
0.24 begin to evacuate the area, if
only to avoid the same fate
0.24 than their counterparts stuck in Stalingrad.
0.24 The beginning of the year is also marked by
the execution of a series of offensives
0.24 of the Red Army on several hot spots on the
Eastern Front. For example, on January 18,
0.24 Soviet troops crossing the frozen Lake Ladoga make a brief
0.24 junction with the defenders of Leningrad
still under the blow of a siege which lasts
0.24 since 1941! But it&;s also obvious that the part
0.24 south of the Eastern Front is a priority for the
Soviet command. Stalingrad and the Caucasus region
0.24 must absolutely be liberated and the
Soviets are putting their all into it.
0.24 On January 21, they captured the last
airstrip available in Stalingrad,
0.24 from now on, the supply of the 6th German
army becomes impossible. It&;s the shot
0.24 thanks for his soldiers, they&;re out
of ammunition, food and equipment
0.24 medical. It&;s also terribly cold. For
his part, Hitler demanded that the fight
0.24 continues. He promotes General von Paulus,
the commander of the Sixth Army, to the
0.24 rank of marshal in order to raise the
morale of the army and put pressure
0.24 on the defenders because, in principle,
no "marshal" in the history of the German
0.24 army capitulated to the enemy!
0.24 But it&;s a waste of time. In the last
week of January, the Soviets launched
0.24 a final assault on Stalingrad. The German
soldiers can&;t take it anymore. The Marshall
0.24 von Paulus and his staff officially capitulate
on January 31 and all the troops
0.24 did the same a few days later, on February 2.
0.24 The defeat is cruel both for the morale of
the army and for that of the German people,
0.24 who, perhaps curiously, is quickly
informed by the government of the new
0.24 of the disaster. At least 300,000 German soldiers
are lost and of this number a few dozen
0.24 thousands are taken prisoner.
0.24 German propaganda seeks to exploit
the defeat at Stalingrad as a sign,
0.24 even a symbol of the sacrifice of the nation
in its struggle against Bolshevism. And by the way,
0.24 the sacrifices for this ideal continue,
so to speak, because the Soviets maintain
0.24 their offensive momentum. On February 14,
they attack and liberate
0.24 the strategic city of Rostov-on-Don.
Two days later, they temporarily resume
0.24 Kharkov, Ukraine, but German resistance in the city is fierce.
0.24 The city of Kharkov has changed hands several
times since 1941. At late February
0.24 and early March 1943, the Germans managed to
retake the city, with difficulties. We see
0.24 in March to violent urban fights where the
Germans end up having the upper hand.
0.24 The victory of Kharkov constitutes, one suspects
it, only one small consolation after the
0.24 Stalingrad debacle.
0.24 Now let&;s go for a ride in the Pacific!
As you now know, this theater
0.24 of operations is vast. The front is huge.
Imagine a circle whose circumference
0.24 and the diameter are several tens of thousands of kilometers.
0.24 This circumference starts from the Aleutian
Islands in the Alaska region, then descends
0.24 to Midway and the Hawaiian Islands, branches
off to the Southeast Pacific Islands for
0.24 finish by covering Burma and China.
Basically, we fight inside
0.24 this immense circle!
0.24 And it seems that at early January
1943 the priority of the Allies is again
0.24 the defense of the front of New Guinea and
the Solomon Islands. American forces
0.24 and Australians are advancing in
eastern New Guinea, but the Japanese
0.24 intend to contest this advance. On January
22, there&;s fighting in the region of
0.24 Buna-Gona, New Guinea, in the jungle. The
Allies regain the upper hand, but the
0.24 Battle conditions are appalling. It&;s
raining, but it&;s raining in New Guinea,
0.24 there&;s no way!
0.24 The amount of daily showers can sometimes
reach 200mm of water, so we
0.24 must naturally add a high level of
humidity which almost never drops below
0.24 80%. Ah yes, I forgot, there is also malaria!
0.24 What&;s more, in the neighboring islands further
east, particularly in the Solomons, the
0.24 Japanese resistance continues. The situation
isn&;t quite settled in Guadalcanal,
0.24 but the Japanese finally evacuate the island on
January 30 after several months of terrible
0.24 clashes.
0.24 At the western end of the circle,
in Burma, British special troops
0.24 nicknamed the Chindits, began commando operations
against the Japanese occupier in February.
0.24 These operations last until the end of the
0.24 hostilities with more or less intensive periods
of sabotage of lines of communication
0.24 and supplying the enemy. These operations
are part of a strategic perspective
0.24 broader reconquest of Burma, but also
the re-establishment of the link
0.24 with China.
0.24 In the northern part of the circle, in the
Aleutian Islands, American soldiers land
0.24 in the island of Attu on May 11.
This is a two-day operation
0.24 involving 15,000 soldiers who will
face about 3,000 Japanese fighters.
0.24 Casually, the Japanese have occupied this
seemingly insignificant island since 1942,
0.24 and they defend it with the energy
of despair. Americans must push back
0.24 banzai charges in an environment of
extreme cold, in the snow and in the mids
0.24 of a Mountain. Almost all Japanese soldiers are
0.24 killed or injured in these suicidal assaults.
And speaking of suicide, the few survivors
0.24 kill themselves, if only to avoid the dishonor
of falling alive into the hands of
0.24 of the enemy. Imagine. In Attu, of the 3,000
Japanese fighters present on the island,
0.24 barely thirty are taken prisoner!
0.24 Note in this context the variety of
environments and climates in which
0.24 the belligerents of the Pacific front clash.
According to the places, they fight
0.24 in mid-of the jungle or in the snow! This particularity
makes it possible to take the measure, once again,
0.24 the immensity of this theater of operations.
Still, the Allies maintain
0.24 the pace of the offensives. On June 21,
a multi-month operation dubbed
0.24 Cartwheel, it consists first of a landing
of the American Marines in New Georgia,
0.24 an island in the Solomons located northwest of Guadalcanal.
0.24 The ultimate goal of Operation Cartwheel
is to take the town of Rabaul located
0.24 on the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea.
Captured by the Japanese in early 1942,
0.24 Rabaul is an important base of
operations in the Southeast Pacific.
0.24 Its possession notably allows the Japanese
to launch offensives in the Solomon Islands
0.24 and somehow represents a sword of
Damocles over Australia. The
0.24 Allies, in order to recapture Rabaul,
intend to go there gradually.
0.24 We&;re talking here about an offensive
strategy "by leap", i.e., to attack
0.24 small islands more or less well
defended to ensure control before
0.24 go after strongholds and “bigger fish” like Rabaul.
0.24 Don&;t worry, I&;ll come back to
it. Now let&;s move to the front
0.24 from Africa.
0.24 Is the file settled, in 1943? Well, no! Of
course, the German soldiers and their
0.24 Italian allies are retreating, but
they have not said their last word.
0.24 Following their victory at El-Alamein
in the fall of 1942, British forces
0.24 continue their offensive push towards the
west. On January 15, they approach Tripoli,
0.24 the capital of Libya which finally
falls the next week, on the 23rd.
0.24 Marshal Rommel doesn&;t put much energy into
defending Tripoli, because he knows very well
0.24 that with the thrust of the Allies arriving
from the west, the final resistance in Africa
0.24 will take place around Tunis, the capital of Tunisia.
0.24 But he can&;t avoid having to fight on two
fronts, one to the west and the other
0.24 in the southeast of Tunisia, not far from
the border with Libya. On February 2,
0.24 the Axis forces settled on a
defensive line nicknamed the Line
0.24 Mareth, in southeastern Tunisia.
0.24 By doing so, Libya is now considered
fully liberated and the British
0.24 troops enter Tunisia to establish contact
with the enemy on the Mareth Line.
0.24 Clearly, imagine the current territory
of Tunisia and you have a good idea
0.24 of what the North African front may represent,
particularly at the beginning of 1943. Finally,
0.24 it&;s Tunisia! So, Rommel has before him the British
0.24 southeast of the country, then the Americans
in the west. He knows the British well
0.24 for having fought them constantly since
1941. But what about this new American
0.24 enemy?
0.24 The German marshal is aware that the
American soldiers, since their landing
0.24 in Africa as part of Operation
Torch in the fall of 1942, didn&;t
0.24 actually been battle tested. With all due respect,
these aren&;t the veterans of El-Alamein!
0.24 That said, Rommel aggressively attacked the
Americans on February 13. He captures the
0.24 localities of Sidi Bouzi and Gafsa in the center of the
country, always with the aim of countering the American
0.24 advance from the west.
0.24 Violent fighting takes place in the Kasserine
pass where these localities are.
0.24 American soldiers are literally being taught
a lesson in their inexperience with the
0.24 fight against the Germans.
Overall, the defeat of American soldiers
0.24 in the Kasserine pass temporarily
allows Rommel to form a front line
0.24 more or less continuous between the capital Tunis in the
north, Kasserine in the center and the Line Mareth
0.24 southeast of Tunisia. Of course,
American soldiers are recovering
0.24 from the shock, gain some experience and
can eventually resume the offensive.
0.24 In fact, as early as February 26, Rommel and
his soldiers were forced into a gradual retreat
0.24 of the Mareth Line to the north.
0.24 I say "gradual" because not only was the German
withdrawal carried out in good order, but
0.24 Rommel counter-attacked on March 6 in the Medenine
region, a few kilometers to the southeast
0.24 of the Mareth Line. This is the last offensive that
0.24 the German Marshal personally leads in
Africa, he suffered a defeat against the
0.24 British, insofar as it fails perfectly to delay or dislocate
0.24 an upcoming offensive against the Mareth Line.
After this battle, Rommel is repatriated
0.24 in Germany while it&;s still possible. I
say that because, a bit as we have seen
0.24 at Stalingrad, the Axis forces are
gradually trapped in a vice that
0.24 tightens to converge towards Tunis. On
March 20, British troops under General
0.24 Montgomery make a first breakthrough of the Mareth Line.
0.24 A few days later, on the 23rd, the Americans
took their revenge on Kasserine by defeating
0.24 the Germans at the battle of El-Guettar,
near Gafsa, in central Tunisia.
0.24 On the same day, the British to the south widened
their breakthrough of the Mareth Line, so
0.24 the entire Axis front it&;s threatened with rupture.
0.24 The retreat of Italian-German soldiers towards
northern Tunisia is accelerating, while
0.24 as the siege tightens again. On April
7, American and British soldiers
0.24 meet in Gafsa, in the center of the country.
The important coastal city of Sfax
0.24 falls and the Axis front in the southern
part of Tunisia completely cracks.
0.24 It&;s now May 1, 1943. The Allies in
Tunisia are advancing rapidly towards
0.24 Tunis and the resistance becomes less and less
strong. Completely isolated and surrounded,
0.24 the Tunisian capital falls a few days later
into the hands of the British, while
0.24 that the Americans capture another important city: Bizerte.
0.24 On May 13, hold on tight, no less than 250,000
Italian and German soldiers capitulated.
0.24 The war in Africa is over! This is
the first continent that we can
0.24 now consider as entirely free from the presence of the Axis.
0.24 Unsurprisingly, and even if it was predictable,
the blow was taken hard in Berlin and
0.24 in Rome, especially since it is difficult
to recover from the Stalingrad disaster.
0.24 Moreover, the Allied forces present
in Africa don&;t stop there, they
0.24 constitute the army designated for
a possible landing somewhere in
0.24 southern Europe, to prolong hostilities
in the Mediterranean and to hold
0.24 the Axis occupied on this part of the front.
0.24 The German and Italian generals are certain
of this and they must prepare accordingly.
0.24 Sicily and mainland Italy will
likely be the next battlegrounds.
0.24 In other words, the Allies decide on
the crossing of the Mediterranean with
0.24 as starting bases the positions recently conquered
in Tunisia and, of course, the island
0.24 of Malta which is finally experiencing
respite! I&;ll come back!
0.24 On the air front –and we can imagine
it– the intensity of the clashes
0.24 only increases. Clearly, the Allies
are increasingly seeking to aim
0.24 the industrial heartland of Nazi Germany.
For example, on February 5, 1943, the city
0.24 of Essen is bombed, marking the
beginning of a long bombing campaign
0.24 daily life which lasts at least four months
in the Ruhr Valley, an important industrial
0.24 center.
0.24 For its part, the Japanese empire is also
beginning to bear the brunt of air attacks
0.24 of the Allies, in particular those of
American aircraft. It&;s getting riskier
0.24 for the Japanese to venture into
the high seas without air cover
0.24 minimum. For example, March 2 begins a
0.24 battle in the Bismarck Islands northeast
of New Guinea. Naval air forces
0.24 Americans and Australians attack a Japanese
convoy of eight troop transports
0.24 escorted by eight destroyers trying to
supply the city of Lae, New Guinea.
0.24 Well, believe it or not, the Japanese
are sinking all of their transport
0.24 of troops, as well as half of
their destroyers! Why? Say
0.24 one of the reasons for this success of the Allies
lies in the decryption of communications
0.24 Japanese. Of the 7,000 soldiers supposed to land at
0.24 Lae, New Guinea, barely 1,000 reach the coast
not without difficulty, so that it becomes
0.24 increasingly difficult for the Japanese
to maneuver in the Pacific and thus control
0.24 the strategic agenda.
0.24 However, where things are not going so well
for the Allies, still with regard to
0.24 air warfare, is the situation in the
Atlantic Ocean. The recurring problem
0.24 remains the famous “black hole”, i.e.,
this zone in the center of the ocean
0.24 which isnt served by adequate aerial
coverage. Convoy losses remain
0.24 heavies.
0.24 And this problem partly finds its solution
in August, a solution -to say the least-
0.24 unusual, when Portugal authorizes the
Allies to use the islands of the Azores
0.24 as naval air bases. In doing so, they
plug a good part of the “black hole”.
0.24 Moreover, this involvement of Portugal
–an officially neutral state with a
0.24 fascist government– ​​is made possible
by, so to speak, the reactivation of a
0.24 Anglo-Portuguese treaty that still exists and dates from 1373!
0.24 Still in the air, on May 16 and 17, 1943,
the British went there for a very
0.24 daring against German hydroelectric dams in the Ruhr Valley.
0.24 So-called Dambuster Raids see 19 RAF bombers attack the dams
0.24 Mohne and Edersee. The idea is, using
special bombs bouncing on water,
0.24 to literally drill holes in each
of these dams to stop production
0.24 of hydroelectricity that supply
the industries of the region.
0.24 Since dams are difficult to destroy
with conventional bombs thrown
0.24 at high altitude, and that the Germans
installed protective anti-torpedo nets
0.24 on rivers, the idea is then to use bouncing bombs
0.24 launched horizontally at very low altitude, at water level.
0.24 Like a ping-pong ball, the bomb leaps over the torpedo nets
0.24 in the direction of the dam to pierce a specific
point. This original method, to say the least,
0.24 allows the Allies to temporarily neutralize
barrages, but which end sooner or later
0.24 by being repaired. But the technique has proven itself.
0.24 In terms of naval warfare, the year 1943 saw no slowdown in
0.24 operations. On the contrary, I&;ld even say
that the situation for the Allies, in the
0.24 first six months of the year in
the North Atlantic, is critical.
0.24 The losses in supply ships recorded for
the month of March alone are appalling.
0.24 They blame the lack of escort ships, of
course, but the problem mentioned above
0.24 lack of air cover is clearly felt.
0.24 Sign of hope, still in the spring of
1943, new models of specialized aircraft
0.24 in anti-submarine warfare, and which have
a longer range of action, are placed
0.24 in service. The infamous &;black hole&; is
becoming increasingly clogged, increasing
0.24 thus the level of safety of the ocean crossing.
0.24 Naturally, the German submarine fleet is
very well organized and it hits hard
0.24 in spring. However, the losses they suffers
are getting heavier and heavier.
0.24 On May 24, the boss of German submarines,
Admiral Karl Donitz, ordered
0.24 the majority of its units to leave the Atlantic
because of the unprecedented losses.
0.24 For example, for the month of May 1943 alone,
the Germans lost 43 U-Boats against only
0.24 34 Allied ships due to improved
anti-submarine tactics. Besides,
0.24 May 1943 was a turning point in the
Battle of the Atlantic, a turning point
0.24 which the Germans refer to as the "Black May".
0.24 Let&;s also not forget that outside of
the more traditional battlefields,
0.24 there are also clashes of varying degrees
of intensity in the territories
0.24 occupied, what is commonly called the "home front".
0.24 For example, as I have often mentioned, many Jews don&;t accept
0.24 or no longer accept, to be guided towards the slaughterhouse.
0.24 On April 19, we witness a real uprising
of the Jews living in the Warsaw ghetto,
0.24 Poland. The battle in the Polish capital lasts about a month.
0.24 This insurrection constitutes a resistance
against the attempts of the Germans to
0.24 liquidate the ghetto and deport Jews
to concentration camps on the eve
0.24 Easter. About 1,000 Jewish fighters belonging
0.24 to various resistance organizations are
rising up. They fight with the means
0.24 on board, with weapons seized from the Germans
or having received only basic training.
0.24 Faced with thousands of S.S. soldiers, the Jews
knew from the start that the cause was hopeless.
0.24 They&;re fighting against a better armed and
better trained occupier, but they&;re fighting
0.24 also against what I can call the "silence
of the world". The Jews know the
0.24 sacrificed and the figures bear witness
to this. As the battle of the ghetto ends
0.24 of Warsaw on May 16, almost all of the
1,000 combatants were killed and 56,000
0.24 civilians are murdered or captured, in
what appears to be the largest uprising
0.24 Jew against the Nazi occupier to this day.
0.24 The prolongation of the war teaches us
that it&;s henceforth considered as
0.24 "total", all resources of the nations
involved are directed towards the effort
0.24 of war. In Germany, on January 28, a new
0.24 conscription law passed. It obliges all men aged 16 to 65 and
0.24 all women aged 17 to 50 to serve either
in the armed forces or in industry
0.24 military!
0.24 Of course, anyone who dares to resist or hinder
the war effort risks suffering the most
0.24 severe punishments. On February 18,
members of one of the few movements of
0.24 resistance in Germany, the White Rose
movement, are arrested in Munich.
0.24 Most members of the White Rose
are university students who
0.24 denounce the crimes of the regime, in
particular those against the Jews,
0.24 the White Rose also denounces the general
oppression of the Nazi regime and calls for
0.24 open resistance. At late 1942 and early
1943, they distributed leaflets, pamphlets
0.24 and traces anti-Nazi graffiti.
0.24 And as you can imagine, the trial of its
leaders is expeditious and well orchestrated.
0.24 Arrested on February 18, they were
executed four days later in a staged
0.24 worthy of the French Revolution: they were guillotined!
0.24 The resistance to the Axis forces is also
transported to the diplomatic front in this
0.24 beginning of 1943. On January 5, 18 allied
countries issued a declaration in London which
0.24 affirms their determination to fight Nazi
plunder in the occupied territories
0.24 and to restore these stolen goods once the war is over.
0.24 The next week, on January 14, began the
Casablanca conference where Churchill
0.24 and Roosevelt discuss a possible invasion
of Europe, specifically the invasion
0.24 of Sicily and Italy.
0.24 But what emerges above all from these debates
is the discussion on the principle of "unconditional
0.24 capitulation". The question is:
should this principle be made a
0.24 guide to future strategies? Ten days
later, on January 24, the conference
0.24 of Casablanca ends. The Allies agree on the
principle of unconditional surrender
0.24 against Germany, because it now seems
certain that Italy will capitulate
0.24 without too many demands over the next few months.
0.24 But time is running out. A few weeks later,
on March 16, Stalin asked for the 9th
0.24 time to the Allies the opening of this famous
second front in the West. He accuses the Allies
0.24 of treason given the slowness of events!
And no offense to Stalin, the events
0.24 move, and maybe even faster than he
thinks. From May 12 to 25 is held
0.24 in Washington a conference dubbed Trident.
During these two weeks, the Allies plan
0.24 in detail the next invasion of Europe,
i.e., the opening of a front
0.24 in Sicily scheduled for the summer. It also
discusses –once again– the principle
0.24 of unconditional surrender, especially
as regards its application against
0.24 Germany.
0.24 Coming out of the Trident conference, where
the USA is increasingly imposing its
0.24 strategic vision, the American and
British Allies agree to postpone
0.24 of another year the invasion of France. The
invasion would be planned for May 1944,
0.24 in theory. This postponement is
essentially linked to the lack
0.24 troops and landing gear available,
as well as the desire to have
0.24 optimal sailing conditions at sea,
in the air and on the foredecks
0.24 to attack in France.
0.24 From now on, it appears from Trident that
the priority remains the invasion of the
0.24 Sicily, as well as the continuation of
the war in the Pacific, while maintaining
0.24 the material aid provided to China,
aid which it sorely needs.
0.24 Now back to the battlefields. I&;ll take you
back to the eastern front, to Russia,
0.24 where the savagery of the clashes seems
to reach new heights in the second
0.24 half of 1943. We&;re on July 5, in the central zone
0.24 from the front, straddling Russia and Ukraine.
This is the start of Operation Zitadel,
0.24 launched by the Germans. It consists of an
offensive against the city of Kursk located
0.24 450 kms southwest of Moscow.
0.24 The Battle of Kursk lasted about
six weeks, this is the most
0.24 great armored battle in history
to date. Kursk forms a kind of
0.24 salient, which the Germans sought
to reduce by vigorous attacks from
0.24 north and south of the city. Why
then are the Germans going to engage
0.24 resources so important to reduce to nothing
this part of the front more or less
0.24 strategic? In fact, Hitler seeks to
reaffirm the strength of Germany to
0.24 of its -to say the least- shaky allies,
in particular with Italy and the fascists
0.24 States of Eastern Europe.
0.24 The idea is therefore to achieve a great
victory to raise the morale of all,
0.24 but also to weaken the offensive potential of
the Soviets, because Hitler remained convinced
0.24 that the USSR is at the end of its war effort.
0.24 At the start of the offensive, on July
5, the Germans aligned about 1,000,000
0.24 soldiers, 3,000 tanks, including the latest
models of Tiger tanks, 2,000 aircraft and
0.24 10,000 guns. Opposite, the Soviets expect
0.24 a major offensive on the Kursk front
and are preparing accordingly,
0.24 to counter the threat of German tanks,
they established a system of trenches
0.24 and anti-tank pits several kilometers
deep in order to make the front elastic
0.24 and able to more easily absorb the shock
of a possible retirement, and the
0.24 same stroke of power to counter-attack when the time comes.
0.24 Facing the Germans and their allies,
the Soviets have about 2,500,000
0.24 soldiers, 7,000 tanks, 3,000 planes and 45,000
guns. In short, in Kursk, there are a lot
0.24 of people!
0.24 The Battle of Kursk ranks among the
greatest battles of World War II
0.24 in terms of troops deployed and the last
major offensive launched by the Germans
0.24 on the Eastern Front.
0.24 On July 5, the German soldiers darken
on the Soviet positions. As expected,
0.24 the first lines of the Red Army retreat
in good order despite the very
0.24 heavy losses, but they feel that the advance is slowing
down and that the German offensive is losing
0.24 his breath faster than expected. Hundreds
of thousands of soldiers fall
0.24 from either side. Kursk is a real carnage
where lie in the countryside the
0.24 soldiers killed or wounded and where the
carcasses of destroyed tanks and planes lie
0.24 slaughtered by the hundreds.
0.24 Just days after the start of the
offensive, Hitler orders it to stop!
0.24 He&;s in this sense probably influenced by
the imminent threat of an Allied invasion.
0.24 in Sicily, an invasion to which I&;ll return in a moment.
0.24 Still, the Soviets regained the
strategic initiative. It&;s also
0.24 the first time since the start of the war
that a large-scale German offensive
0.24 is suspended only a few days after
its start because it doesn&;t
0.24 simply manages to break through the enemy front.
0.24 Moreover, on July 12, a week after
the start of the battle, the Soviets
0.24 counterattack in the Prokhorovka region,
about 100 kms southeast of Kursk.
0.24 If you like armored vehicles, you&;ll be served.
0.24 It&;s in this small sector located at the
southern end of the Kursk salient that
0.24 can be called the greatest
tank battle in history. About
0.24 300 German tanks face 600 Soviet tanks, and it hits hard!
0.24 The sounds of impact and ricochets
of shells on armor can be heard at
0.24 tens of kilometers around. The tank
turrets burst, their tracks become
0.24 spray, the crews of destroyed tanks are
burned alive or torn to pieces in their
0.24 vehicles, or are killed trying to
escape. In short, it&;s horrible!
0.24 The Germans won a tactical victory
there in terms of casualties, but
0.24 the victory finally goes to the Soviets in
strategic terms because, in terms of impacts
0.24 on the entire Kursk front, it changes
completely! On July 13, Hitler, as
0.24 I said, stopped the offensive, but
the Soviets continued to attack.
0.24 On August 5, in the wake of their victory, they
advanced on the central part of the front.
0.24 Defeated, the Germans have no choice
but to retreat and they&;re forced
0.24 to abandon the city of Kharkov, Ukraine,
which is considered to be definitively
0.24 released. The front line is now moving
much further west, towards Kyiv.
0.24 The Soviet victory at Kursk sends
the signal that it&;s now possible
0.24 to reconquer Ukraine and, perhaps, to
force the enemy to retreat on the whole
0.24 from the eastern front.
0.24 On August 25, in fact, the Red Army
entered Smolensk, another important city
0.24 occupied since the 1941 invasion. A few
weeks later, on November 6, the soldiers
0.24 of Stalin make their entry into Kyiv, whose
fall constitutes an important stage in
0.24 the liberation of the whole Ukrainian territory.
0.24 This great coverage of the events of
1943 would not be quite complete
0.24 without evoking a burst of episodes of a political
and diplomatic nature that occurred in the
0.24 second half of the year. For
example, on August 5, Sweden –a
0.24 Neutral State– announces that it no longer
allows Germans to transit through
0.24 its territory their soldiers, nor their
military equipment. Sweden&;s attitude
0.24 the conflict, a bit like that of Portugal
that we&;ve seen, raises questions about
0.24 the place of neutral countries in time of war.
0.24 Also in August, from the 17th to the 24th,
Quebec City -yes, the city where I&;m
0.24 born in Canada- hosts a very important
Allied Conference. Within the walls of
0.24 its citadel and its Château Frontenac,
Roosevelt and Churchill discuss a variety
0.24 strategic topics. This is the Quadrant Conference,
0.24 a top secret conference which is also
supposed to include Stalin, but this
0.24 last isn&;t able to participate for
security reasons given the distance
0.24 and risks associated with travel.
0.24 Roosevelt and Churchill discuss planning
a landing in France, an operation
0.24 whose code name would be Overlord.
The Quebec conference also deals with
0.24 sending reinforcements to the new Italian front,
because they know that this campaign will be
0.24 much longer than expected. And as we&;ve
just seen, the degradation of the
0.24 Italy&;s military situation is such that
this file is one of the priorities
0.24 on the discussion agenda.
0.24 Negotiations are also underway on
improving development coordination
0.24 of the atomic bomb between the USA
and Great Britain, coordination in which
0.24 Canada, host of the conference, is also involved.
0.24 On this point, a secret agreement, called the Quebec
Accord, was signed with the aim of combining
0.24 resources for atomic and nuclear
research, then for development
0.24 of these future weapons.
0.24 The Quebec Accord therefore brought about the merger
of the British and American atomic programs,
0.24 respectively the Tube Alloys programs and
the Manhattan Project.
0.24 The military situation in the Balkans
is also discussed. The allies
0.24 agree to provide material support to
local guerrillas, particularly those in
0.24 Greece and Yugoslavia. Obviously, the
war will not be won on this front.
0.24 As far as the Pacific is concerned, it goes without
saying that the fight against Japan will continue
0.24 and will go on intensifying. The USA
is clearly taking the lead in strategy
0.24 on this front.
0.24 Naturally, the results of the talks are
communicated to the USSR and nationalist
0.24 China. There also emerged from the
Quebec conference a joint Anglo-American
0.24 statement regarding the situation in
Palestine with the aim of easing tensions
0.24 localities engendered by the long
British military occupation.
0.24 Let&;s go back to Europe for a moment,
more precisely, to the Mediterranean.
0.24 As we know, the war is now over in
Africa. The Allies are preparing
0.24 their next campaign: the conquest of Sicily.
0.24 In other words, the war is moving to
Axis territories and more specifically
0.24 on a portion of territory that belongs
to Italy, an Italy now tottering
0.24 and from which it&;s hoped that the
Allies will soon capitulate.
0.24 The invasion of Sicily began on July 10, 1943,
under the code name Husky. It&;s about
0.24 an amphibious and airborne operation which
marks the start of a six-year campaign
0.24 weeks for the conquest of this large island.
0.24 The possession of the Sicilian territory
presents some strategic advantages for the
0.24 Allies. First, his release will allow them
to eliminate the Axis naval air forces
0.24 over a large portion of the Mediterranean front.
The island of Malta will no longer be bombarded!
0.24 Finally!
0.24 Then, the Allies could install air bases there to extend the
0.24 range of their bombers a little further
to the east of Europe. Finally – and
0.24 it&;s a significant element that stems
from a certain panic in Hitler-
0.24 the opening of this front leads the Germans
to transfer about 20% of their workforce
0.24 from Russia to Italy. And this
invasion of Sicily sees the Allies
0.24 deploy about 160,000 infantry, mainly
Americans, British and Canadians,
0.24 and some 600 armour. To face them, the Italians have
0.24 of about 200,000 men of dubious
combativeness, supported by about 50,000
0.24 German soldiers who are on the way. It&;s
especially this last element that is
0.24 dreaded by the Allies, despite the fact that the
first hours of the landing took place relatively
0.24 well and that the progress on the
island is done at a steady pace.
0.24 On July 22, American soldiers entered
Palermo, marking the completion
0.24 of the conquest of the western part of Sicily.
The Allies plan to make their junction
0.24 in Messines, in the east of the island, just
on the other side of the shore which separates
0.24 Sicily from mainland Italy. On August
11, what remains of the Axis forces
0.24 evacuated Sicily with the aim of forming
a new front in Italy given the arrival
0.24 large German contingents in the
area. Moreover, with the release
0.24 of Messines made official on August
17, Sicily can now be considered
0.24 as completely conquered.
0.24 The loss of Sicily is a heavy blow for
the Axis countries, but what makes them
0.24 probably the worst is that Italy is thinking
of capitulating! On July 25, while
0.24 as fighting continues in Sicily,
Benito Mussolini is placed under arrest
0.24 after a meeting with King Victor-Emmanuel III.
0.24 The king asks Marshal Pietro Badoglio
to form a new government. Officially,
0.24 Fascist Italy continues the struggle
with the Axis, but secret negotiations
0.24 are underway with the Allies with a view to an armistice.
0.24 Mussolini therefore lost the confidence of the Grand
Council of Fascism, which was the organ of the
0.24 government, following a motion voted against
it. The day after this putsch, Mussolini
0.24 is officially ejected from his seat
and his successors hasten to sign
0.24 an armistice with the Allies. The
armistice comes into effect on September 3,
0.24 1943, and it marks the official withdrawal of Italy
from the war and the end of its strategic alliance
0.24 with Germany and Japan. The Axis has
just lost an important partner.
0.24 The same day the armistice came into
force, the Allied soldiers landed
0.24 in mainland Italy, in the southern part
of the famous boot. This landing marks
0.24 certainly the beginning of another long
campaign for the conquest of all of Italy.
0.24 Why? Because the Germans present on
the territory will not abandon the
0.24 gone so easily! In an attempt to take them from behind, the
0.24 Allies go there with a daring maneuver,
on September 9, by landing troops
0.24 in the Salerno area, near Naples.
The idea, you will understand, is
0.24 to confine the Axis forces in the south of the country.
0.24 But this attempt to take the Germans from
behind quickly turned against the Allies.
0.24 The landing is improvised, without prior
bombardment of the coasts to create
0.24 surprise, but the German and Italian soldiers
who remained loyal to the Axis resisted.
0.24 The trap fails to close, so the Allies must retreat
0.24 towards the beach and be content to hold a small
piece of land without having been able to
0.24 the junction with the forces landed
in the south a few days earlier.
0.24 Despite the defeat at Salerno, the
Allies still advance from the south
0.24 of Italy. The British capture the
important port of Taranto then mount
0.24 to the north.
0.24 Simultaneously, as I was saying, the Germans
sent large reinforcements to the Italian
0.24 front. On September 10, these soldiers
entered Rome and seemed to want
0.24 set a front line from east to west
of Italy using the Italian capital
0.24 as a point of support. But for the German victory in Italy,
0.24 a necessity arose: to disarm the Italian army. It&;s important
0.24 to do so, because, at the signing of the
armistice, the Italian army still had about
0.24 1 million soldiers.
0.24 At early September, the Germans launched
Operation Achse, which consisted of
0.24 disarm Italian troops that are infidels to the regime.
0.24 It&;s a long-term operation, insofar
as the Germans must not
0.24 only hurry to disarm the Italians,
but they must send garrisons into
0.24 the areas formerly occupied by the latter,
particularly in the Balkans, in Italy, and
0.24 of course, in the south of France.
0.24 Moreover, some Italian units are resisting,
among others in the Greek islands,
0.24 to the point where many are the soldiers
who take the maquis and join the resistance
0.24 local. Others try in vain to confront
them directly. Operation Achse
0.24 left 20 to 30,000 dead in the ranks of the Italian army.
0.24 Also in September, the 12th, the deposed dictator
Mussolini, who has been since his arrest
0.24 detained in Gran Sasso, is delivered by
an S.S. commando led by Otto Skorzeny.
0.24 Mussolini therefore remained loyal to Hitler
and became the leader of a new puppet state
0.24 called the Italian Social Republic
or the Republic of Salo, i.e., fascist
0.24 Italy remained loyal to the Axis.
0.24 All these operations take place at the same time
in the fall, when the belligerents in Italy
0.24 clash on two fronts: one where the
Germans increase the pressure against
0.24 the bridgehead of Salerno, this stretch of beach
that the Allies are desperately trying to
0.24 hold, the other to the south, to stop
the forces advancing at a brisk pace.
0.24 The Anglo-American troops finally make
their junction at Salerno on September 16,
0.24 which makes it possible to constitute a kind of
united front from east to west of Italy to begin
0.24 a forthcoming offensive towards the north.
0.24 The Italian campaign will be long and painful.
Here too, the terrain and the climate are
0.24 inhospitable. They fight in the mountains,
sometimes in the plains and in the vineyards.
0.24 In the villages in ruins, it isn&;t always
possible to determine in which camp
0.24 are the inhabitants, because even if he
was deposed, Mussolini still has many
0.24 supporters. It&;s also hot in summer, but the
0.24 temperature can be rainy and cold in winter.
In addition, German forces have
0.24 the advantage of being able to defend a
front with relatively few resources being
0.24 given that they often occupy elevated
positions in mounts and that Italy
0.24 itself isn&;t very “wide”.
0.24 Nevertheless, the Axis forces must retreat
to better defend themselves. We note by
0.24 elsewhere, on September 19, that the Germans
evacuated Sardinia and that Corsica was
0.24 liberated by the Free French Forces
a few weeks later, on October 4.
0.24 In Italy, as I said, the Axis forces are
retreating, but they&;re doing it in
0.24 good order and the Allies pay the price.
Why? Well, because the Germans
0.24 establish a whole series of defensive lines
at different "heights" of the Italian front.
0.24 For example, the southernmost defensive line
of this arrangement, the Volturno Line,
0.24 starts just north of Naples, west of
the Italian boot, and ends in the east
0.24 opposite the locality of Termoli. If
this line falls, the Germans and their
0.24 Italian allies will be able to retreat
further north to another defensive position
0.24 even better equipped. You&;ll understood
that the Italian campaign
0.24 which begins in the summer and fall
of 1943 is a long one. Clearly:
0.24 the Allies must bring down each
defensive line, one after the other,
0.24 to the Austrian border!
0.24 The arrival of autumn also means an accumulation
of precipitation which slows down the
0.24 Allies advance, if only because
the rare roads in the valleys become
0.24 quickly bogged down. It seems clear at the moment
that Rome will not be liberated in 1943,
0.24 but the Italian capital is now the
subject of regular aerial bombardments.
0.24 On November 2, British troops reached
the Garigliano River located near the
0.24 Gustav Line, another of those famous defensive
positions located north of the Volturno Line,
0.24 which has just fallen.
0.24 This Gustav Line is probably
the best equipped line of the
0.24 German system, it&;s defended to the
west by the famous Monte Cassino,
0.24 an old and famous medieval abbey, then
to the east by the city of Ortona.
0.24 The soldiers stare in front of Monte
Cassino wondering how they&;re going to
0.24 capture this formidable defensive position,
while Canadian troops deliver fierce
0.24 fighting against the Germans in the
streets of Ortona in December. In short,
0.24 as Christmas approaches, the Italian
front seems for the moment to stabilize,
0.24 which momentarily allows us to
go back to the theater of
0.24 operations in the Pacific in the second half of 1943.
0.24 As we know, the Japanese always offer
formidable resistance and they&;re far
0.24 to be defeated. The naval and land
battles are numerous, but I&;ll mention
0.24 here just a few. On August 15,
Canadian and American soldiers
0.24 land on the island of Kiska, in the
Aleutian Islands. To their astonishment,
0.24 hardly any shots are fired! The Japanese
have abandoned the island! The folder
0.24 of the Aleutian Islands now seems settled.
0.24 However, on this same day of August 15, the
battle of the island of Vella Lavella begins,
0.24 located at the northwest end of
New Georgia. This is a campaign
0.24 which will end in October and which is part
of the broader campaign for the reconquest
0.24 of the Solomon Islands.
0.24 The idea for the Allies is to take back
all the Solomon Islands from the Japanese
0.24 to use it as a starting point for
the conquest of Rabaul, the most
0.24 important city in Papua New Guinea and
main Japanese base in the southeast
0.24 of the Pacific. At the beginning
of September, the Allies progress
0.24 well in Papua New Guinea, so at the
end of the month, it considers in a
0.24 unofficial way end to this long campaign
to reconquer the Solomon Islands.
0.24 I say "unofficial" because pockets of
Japanese resistance still exist in
0.24 New Guinea, as well as the island of
Bougainville in the northwest end
0.24 of the Solomons. There, on
November 1, the U.S. Marines
0.24 face strong enemy resistance and will
attempt to isolate or even contain
0.24 the last Japanese garrisons and wait until the
end of the war for them to capitulate.
0.24 And that&;s the problem, because the
Japanese gather in small or larger
0.24 garrisons,seem to be all over the
Pacific Islands. They think they did the
0.24 complete conquest of an island, but
there are often pockets of enemies
0.24 resistance that have not been completely eliminated.
0.24 Therefore, it was in this context that
Operation Galvanic began on November 20, 1943.
0.24 It&;s about reconquering the Gilbert Islands
which form a series of 16 atolls and islands
0.24 of coral located roughly halfway
between Papua New Guinea and the
0.24 Hawaiian Islands. Yes, take out your map!
0.24 One of these atolls, that of Tarawa,
is the subject of particular attention
0.24 due to the strong Japanese garrison
there. His reconquest is part of
0.24 this allied strategy of "circumvention" and
encirclement of the Japanese garrisons
0.24 isolated in the Pacific. The capture
of the Gilbert Islands is important
0.24 to facilitate the movement of supplies and
reinforcements between the USA and the
0.24 Pacific front. However, as I was
saying, there&;s an enemy presence,
0.24 an abnormally strong presence given
the modest size of this archipelago.
0.24 Still, on November 20, the Americans
stormed the Gilbert Islands… and
0.24 it&;s a real carnage! They fight a
terrible battle on the island of Bétio
0.24 located in the atoll of Tarawa.
The Marines are literally decimated,
0.24 they&;re crumbling under the fire of coastal batteries
and the firing of Japanese machine guns.
0.24 In American public opinion – which ends
up being made aware of the events-
0.24 are shocked by the extent of the losses. The
Battle of Tarawa lasts three days, this is
0.24 the first time the U.S. Marines
faced serious opposition directly
0.24 on the beach, following a landing
of their amphibious troops.
0.24 Clearly, the Japanese are waiting for them
and they&;re well supplied. In three days,
0.24 nearly 1,700 American soldiers were killed
out of the 35,000 initially engaged.
0.24 However, almost all Japanese soldiers,
and their Korean conscripts,
0.24 are killed. In other words, at the end of the battle,
0.24 the Japanese record about 4,600 soldiers
killed and they lose about 20 prisoners.
0.24 You&;ll have understood it again: for them,
capitulation isn&;t an option!
0.24 The terrible casualties suffered by the Marines
in Tarawa are shocking to the strategists
0.24 and public opinion, especially since the island and
the archipelago had been the subject of intense
0.24 aerial bombardments supposed to annihilate
the enemy positions before the landing,
0.24 where the question, perhaps cruel:
are strategic bombings effective?
0.24 Can they eventually annihilate, if not temporarily
dislocate the front and industrial production
0.24 of the opponent? The question is valid!
0.24 It&;s cruel to put the question in this way, insofar
as the losses suffered during the air
0.24 offensives are heavy, especially among
the Allies who invest a fair amount of
0.24 resources. In the second half of 1943, the Americans
0.24 and the British intensified their bombing
campaign against Germany and its
0.24 allies. The cities of the Ruhr Valley,
as well as industrial and port centers
0.24 from northern Germany, as well as the capital
of Berlin, are visited almost daily by
0.24 bombers. The bombings are more and more deadly
0.24 for civilian populations, especially since
bombers can extend their radius
0.24 of action because of their technological
improvement and also because they can
0.24 take off from bases formerly located in occupied territories.
0.24 For example, on August 1, 1943, American
bombers attacked several refineries
0.24 of oil in Romania, from bases in North
Africa, but the losses are really
0.24 heavy! At least 53 bombers are shot down, resulting in
0.24 suddenly the loss of about 650 airmen
for mixed results. Some refineries
0.24 are destroyed, but oil production continues nonetheless.
0.24 On August 17, the Americans attacked in Germany
in the region of Schweinfurt-Regensburg.
0.24 There&;s a good part of the German aeronautical
industry, no less than 376
0.24 B-17 bombers heavily damage their targets,
but the losses are catastrophic.
0.24 60 B-17 aircraft are shot down for a loss
of at least 600 airmen who, unfortunately,
0.24 are often left behind. Why?
Because the hunters supposed to escort
0.24 the bombers don&;t have at this date
a sufficient radius of action to
0.24 confront enemy fighters.
0.24 Consequently, the Allies are forced to
postpone for several weeks certain
0.24 bombing missions deep into enemy
territory. Of course, the opponent&;s
0.24 war industry is damaged, but the
losses suffered don&;t allow
0.24 renew the offensive in the short term
to eliminate a target once and for all.
0.24 Another example: on the night of August
17 to 18, British RAF bombers attacked
0.24 the Peenemünde research center and missile
base, that I have already mentioned.
0.24 Again, about 40 bombers were shot down, not
to mention that the bombs killed several
0.24 hundreds of forced laborers, often
Jews or prisoners of war. The
0.24 results? The missile production
program is delayed for two months!
0.24 The target is damaged, but manages to "regenerate".
0.24 Want another example? Well on October
19, the German government orders
0.24 at the Mittelwerk plant located in Kohnstein,
central Germany, to produce 12,000
0.24 V-1 and V-2 type missiles. The factory
is underground, precisely to avoid being
0.24 directly bombarded as in Peenemünde.
0.24 Did I tell you about the Schweinfurt raid
earlier? Well on October 14, the
0.24 Americans are doing it again! Of the 292
B-17 bombers committed, 63 didn&;t return.
0.24 That&;s too much. It was then decided to
suspend the strategic bombing missions
0.24 in broad daylight as long as a
sufficient quantity isn&;t available
0.24 long-range fighters to escort
heavy aircraft during the trip.
0.24 Note also: civilians are increasingly
bearing the brunt of these deadly attacks.
0.24 The war is total, civilians are subject
to it in the same way as the military.
0.24 Moreover, this increasingly important
involvement of civilians is felt
0.24 in several respects: whether it&;s the bombardments
or even during the campaigns of persecution of
0.24 Jewish populations and other minorities,
or within the framework of army resistance
0.24 movements against the occupier.
0.24 For example, on August 2, 1943, about 3,000
members of the Roma community, which I
0.24 didn&;t speak until now, are gassed
in Auschwitz. A few days later,
0.24 another insurrection breaks out in the
Jewish ghetto of Bialystok in Poland.
0.24 Like what had happened in the Warsaw
ghetto a few months earlier,
0.24 the Jews of Bialystok rose up when they
learned that they&;d be deported to
0.24 the camps. As a result, they want to force the opening
of a corridor through which the population could
0.24 escape to the surrounding countryside.
The idea has its merit, but the chances
0.24 of success are slim. Armed with
the means on board, about 400
0.24 of them attack the Germans with a few
rifles, pistols and Molotov cocktails.
0.24 And as was to be expected, the revolt
was crushed and the leading heads of
0.24 the insurrection commit suicide.
0.24 At the same time, the Germans intensified
their retaliatory measures against anyone
0.24 would dare to challenge the authority of the 3rd
Reich. For example, on November 3 and 4, about
0.24 43,000 Jews located in different concentration
camps in Poland are murdered.
0.24 These are reprisals against the various
uprisings in the ghettos. In this case,
0.24 Heinrich Himmler orders the murder of the
Jews mainly located in the district of
0.24 Lublin. Prisoners are stripped and
forced to walk through the trenches
0.24 supposedly hollowed out as anti-aircraft defences.
0.24 Very loud music is played during all
these hours with the aim, of course,
0.24 drown out the sound of rifles and machine guns.
The survivors are tasked with burning the
0.24 bodies of their compatriots during this operation,
which is considered the greatest massacre
0.24 of Jews since the outbreak of hostilities.
And as the last example of a long list
0.24 massacres perpetrated by the Nazis, we
note that of Kalavryta, in Greece. On 13
0.24 December, the Germans assassinate almost
the entire male population of the village.
0.24 About 700 people are killed in retaliation
for the murders of about 80 German soldiers
0.24 captured by one of the Greek guerrillas and
no less than 1,000 houses are looted
0.24 or destroyed.
0.24 Moreover, on a more political level, let&;s
note briefly that on October 10 the Chinese
0.24 nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek painfully
sworn in as head of government
0.24 of the Republic of China despite communist opposition.
0.24 The next month, on November 9, Charles de Gaulle
became the chairman of the Committee of
0.24 the National Liberation, which confirms
him in his position as the true leader of
0.24 Free France.
0.24 In Yugoslavia, where the struggle against the
occupier was very strong, Communist Marshal Josip
0.24 Tito also becomes the leader of the resistance
and he proclaims a "democratic" Yugoslav
0.24 government in exile. So, there&;s as the year 1943
0.24 comes to an end, a major reshuffling of the
political maps in the world. Its know that the
0.24 Axis powers will eventually be defeated,
but how much longer will the war last?
0.24 The Allies can&;t afford the luxury of relaxing
the pressure, because the territories
0.24 occupied by the enemy are vast and millions
of individuals yearn for a possible
0.24 liberation. On October 18, a conference is held in Moscow
0.24 of foreign ministers of the great powers, they discuss the
0.24 best way to strengthen military cooperation
in order, precisely, to shorten the duration
0.24 of the conflict and provide forms of
trial and punishment for war criminals.
0.24 The next month, in Tehran, another conference
brought together for the very first time, on
0.24 the same scene, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin.
0.24 The plans for Operation Overlord discussed in
Quebec become clearer and Stalin realizes
0.24 that the promise of opening a second
front in Western Europe materializes.
0.24 In this regard, note that the Allies are
setting up a new military organization:
0.24 the Supreme Allied Expeditionary Force,
led by American General Dwight Eisenhower.
0.24 Also at the end of 1943, German Field Marshal
Erwin Rommel was made responsible for the
0.24 defense planning in Western Europe
in anticipation of a landing,
0.24 landing that Eisenhower is planning. This is a
0.24 another sign to the effect that the war will eventually
move, or return, to France, sooner or later.
0.24 We&;ve been at war since September 1
0.24 1939. As I speak to you, we&;re beginning the year 1944.
0.24 Yes, 1944! You understood well. The world
has been at war for a long time. We have
0.24 even surpassed in duration the Great War of
1914-1918 and, of course, surpassed the
0.24 death toll numbering in the tens of millions.
0.24 The fatigue and weariness of the civilian
and military populations are well felt,
0.24 and it&;s not over. Admittedly, on the
Allies side, one can reasonably think
0.24 that victory is at hand. Events
on the military fronts speak
0.24 from themselves. On the most important land front, that
0.24 of Russia, the Soviet forces undertake the
reconquest of the lost territories, they
0.24 made considerable progress in Ukraine following
their resounding victory in Kursk.
0.24 In the Mediterranean, Sicily is conquered
and the belligerents clash in the south
0.24 from Rome. Italy has officially capitulated,
leaving Germany and Japan to lead the
0.24 struggle on behalf of the Axis.
Although a front is open in Italy,
0.24 Stalin still eagerly awaits the opening
of a “genuine second front” in the West
0.24 of Europe, i.e., in France. When? The
Allies are of course keeping the secret.
0.24 But it&;s coming!
0.24 In the Pacific, the Allies are in control
of the strategic agenda. The idea is
0.24 in particular to tighten the siege towards Japan
by the reconquest of various archipelagos
0.24 in Southeast Asia. More dark days
are to be expected. The Japaneses
0.24 are waging a fanatical struggle and it&;s far from over!
0.24 In the air and on the sea, the situation
is as follows: the bombing Allies campaign
0.24 in Europe is more intense than
ever. Attacks are almost daily,
0.24 to the point where the distinction between civilian
and military targets is almost no longer made.
0.24 At sea, U-Boats represent a constant threat
in the Atlantic, but the situation seems
0.24 under control, improving the protection
of convoys and the quality of
0.24 air cover greatly reduces the
loss rate of merchant ships.
0.24 Come on! Let&;s go! 1944 awaits us!
0.24 Where to start this time? Why not go
to Italy? This new front abounds
0.24 of activities at the beginning of 1944.
To use a very Quebec expression:
0.24 it smell quite a bit! From mid-January,
the Allied forces came up against
0.24 in front of a defensive position with the
cursed name: Monte Cassino. It&;s an medieval
0.24 abbey of Benedictine monks located
on a very high mountain, his position
0.24 south of Rome is firmly defended by the
Germans who intend to block access
0.24 to the Italian capital.
0.24 The British forces first attack the
surroundings by crossing the
0.24 Garigliano river located in the extreme western
part of the Gustav Line, another of the famous
0.24 German defensive lines in Italy. The
Battle of Monte Cassino lasts about
0.24 five months divided into several phases.
The capture of this strategic position
0.24 constitutes an operation of international
scope, insofar as allied forces from
0.24 of several nations participate and which
represent no less than a quarter of
0.24 million fighters.
0.24 The British open the ball on January 17,
three days later by the entrance
0.24 on stage Americans who, unfortunately
for them, suffer very heavy losses
0.24 while trying to cross the Gari river, nicknamed
by the soldiers the "Rapido" river,
0.24 south of Monte Cassino.
For two days, the Americans attacked
0.24 in a hollow in the valley facing the Germans
located in the heights, they try to
0.24 cross the river in canoes, but they&;re quickly
caught in the rear and cut off from their
0.24 refueling.
0.24 In short, it&;s bad! The Americans beat
a hasty retreat on the other side
0.24 of Rapido. They leave 800 prisoners to the
enemy and some 1,300 soldiers killed
0.24 against 64 for the Germans! The battle is a
fiasco to the point where the rumor goes
0.24 let the US Congress even consider
conducting an investigation!
0.24 The Allies are looking for other solutions
to take Monte Cassino. On January 22,
0.24 begins Operation Shingle which consists
of a landing on the beach of Anzio,
0.24 a coastal city south of Rome. Supposed
to allow the Allies to take Monte
0.24 Cassino reverse and block the way between
the mountain and Rome, the landing of Anzio
0.24 quickly turns sour, as in Salerno
the previous year. They can&;t attack
0.24 neither Rome nor Monte Cassino!
0.24 Why? Because the Germans are in
Anzio, at least in the heights
0.24 which dominate the city and the beach. The
hope of cracking the front south of Rome is
0.24 quickly annihilated, as the Allies failed
to exploit the established bridgehead.
0.24 The many logistical problems related to
the landing caused the Allies to lose a
0.24 precious time that they can&;t invest in
conquering the surrounding heights.
0.24 Further east, the Anzio sector is full of
marshes and the Americans and British
0.24 disagree on the pace of operations. Clearly,
the Germans are exploiting these flaws.
0.24 Oh yes! I forgot! Small detail, you say.
The Germans are sabotaging the
0.24 swamp drainage pumps, creating a flooded
area between them and the allied front.
0.24 And since they occupy the heights and
that the Allies advance only painfully,
0.24 the Germans have time to bring in their artillery,
which benefits from an impeccable view.
0.24 The Allies are stuck in Anzio at late
January and early February, the
0.24 front stabilizes and they can no longer
advance, at least for now, nor carry
0.24 assistance to the Monte Cassino front. Of
course, they forget the capture of Rome in
0.24 this context. Meanwhile, the Allies begin on February 15
0.24 what can be called the second battle of Monte
Cassino with the systematic destruction
0.24 of the abbey under intense aerial bombardment.
0.24 At early March, both on the Anzio front
and on that of Monte Cassino, the Germans
0.24 adopt a defensive posture. The bridgehead
finally seems to resist for good and
0.24 the Allies launched a third offensive on March
15 against the abbey, which was still resisting.
0.24 It wasn&;t until May 11, at the start of
a fourth offensive led this time by
0.24 the free Polish forces, that the hope is reborn
to capture Monte Cassino and its abbey.
0.24 The fights of this last phase last
a week and the victory is declared
0.24 on May 18. Simultaneously, the Allies managed to
0.24 get away from Anzio beach. This front
is definitively pierced on May 23, but
0.24 instead of moving south to encircle
the retreating Germans from
0.24 Monte Cassino, the Allies advance north to take Rome.
0.24 In doing so, they allow the Germans in
Monte Cassino to fall back and join the
0.24 rest of their troops to the north and
solidify a new defensive line around Rome,
0.24 a position dubbed this time the Hitler Line.
0.24 Despite all, the battles of Anzio and
Monte Cassino are victorious for the Allies,
0.24 but the losses remain heavy. The Allies
lose about 100,000 soldiers against 60,000
0.24 for the Germans. The fronts of
Monte Cassino and Anzio make
0.24 finally their junction on May 25. However, there
is a misunderstanding between the Americans
0.24 and the British, the Americans are in a
hurry to capture the Italian capital,
0.24 while the British want to perfect the
encirclement of the remnants of the
0.24 German army.
0.24 Results? Rome is still occupied and the Germans
in Monte Cassino were able to escape.
0.24 Yes, I&;ll come back!
0.24 Let&;s now move on to the eastern front,
that&;s, to Russia. The beginning
0.24 of the year 1944 looks promising for the
Soviets, who are still capitalizing
0.24 on the significant gains made the previous year.
0.24 On January 4, advance elements of the
Red Army from Ukraine entered Poland.
0.24 The same month, the Soviets advanced towards the
Baltic countries, where the German resistance
0.24 seems better organized than in
the central part of the forehead.
0.24 But to return to the northern sector, I&;ld
tell you that the notable event is the
0.24 release of the city of Leningrad on January 27,
which occurred after a voluntary withdrawal
0.24 of the Germans given the deterioration of
the situation in the central part of the
0.24 forehead. In doing so, the city of Leningrad today
0.24 Saint-Petersburg, can finally breathe after
a siege that will have lasted 900 days and
0.24 more than 2 million dead, mostly
civilians who succumbed to the disease
0.24 and starvation.
0.24 Still late January, the Germans noticed
a rapid deterioration in their situation
0.24 on the Eastern Front, this is particularly worrying
in the central portion of the forehead,
0.24 which can be roughly called the Ukrainian front.
0.24 Employing tactics and strategies akin
to the famous German Blitzkrieg of
0.24 1940, the Soviets made significant inroads into Ukraine.
0.24 The Germans realize that their losses are
becoming increasingly difficult to replace,
0.24 unlike the Soviets who are only
getting stronger. These emphasize
0.24 on mobility to destabilize the enemy
and prevent it from consolidating.
0.24 At early February, the front is concentrated in
the isthmus of Narva where there&;s an important
0.24 fortress, the Germans defend this position
behind the river of the same name.
0.24 The Battle of Narva, in the northern part
of the Eastern Front, lasts a few weeks
0.24 and occupied the Soviets quite a bit
in the first half of 1944. Violent
0.24 hand-to-hand combat between the S.S.
and the troops of the Red Army.
0.24 Stalin&;s soldiers must imperatively break
the resistance on this front, if only
0.24 to catch up with the progress made
by their counterparts in Ukraine.
0.24 In Ukraine, precisely, the Germans continue to
withdraw from this immense territory where
0.24 clashes continued throughout March.
In early April, the Red Army
0.24 rushes to the Crimea which is liberated
in mid-May. Several thousand Germans
0.24 and Romanians prisoners are thus captured.
0.24 Now let&;s go for a ride in the Pacific.
Where are we at the beginning of 1944?
0.24 Japanese expansion in Southeast
Asia is definitely halted, but
0.24 the Japanese empire is far from being defeated.
At late January, the Americans landed
0.24 this time in the Marshall Islands located not
far from the Gilbert Islands near the equator,
0.24 halfway between the Hawaiian Islands
and Papua New Guinea -Do you have
0.24 your maps? Yes ? Perfect!-
0.24 Continuing with the Battle of Tarawa in
November 1943, the Marshall Islands Campaign
0.24 aims to establish naval air bases in
this central part of the Pacific,
0.24 moreover the painful lessons
of Tarawa have been learned.
0.24 For their landing in the Marshall Islands,
the Americans deployed troops six
0.24 times higher than the Japanese. Combined
with increased firepower, the landing
0.24 in these islands is done with much
less heavy losses than in Tarawa.
0.24 Moreover, the conquest of the Marshall Islands
is part of this strategy to capture
0.24 islands of the Pacific by going there
"by leaps", i.e., to attack an
0.24 archipelago one after the other in
order to gradually get closer to Japan.
0.24 Theater of clashes since 1942, the Solomon
Islands are gradually being liberated
0.24 and the front tends to establish in Papua
New Guinea at early March 1944. Until May,
0.24 the Allies landed in various places
in this territory to eliminate
0.24 the enemy naval air bases.
0.24 Elsewhere, but still in the Pacific,
British special forces dubbed
0.24 the Chindits, continue at early March
their incursions and sabotages behind the
0.24 Japanese lines in Burma. It should
be noted, and it may seem paradoxical,
0.24 the Japanese, despite their defeats in
the Pacific Islands, decided to launch
0.24 an offensive towards India from
Burma. This is how March 7 begins
0.24 the battle of Imphal in Indian territory,
a town near from the Burmese border.
0.24 I&;ll come back!
0.24 The development of a new front in India
doesn&;t mean the end of the clashes
0.24 in the Pacific Islands, quite the
contrary. For most of March 1944,
0.24 fighting takes place on the island of
Bougainville located in the extremity
0.24 northwest of the Solomon Islands, near from Guadalcanal.
0.24 Badly prepared, the Japanese attacked
the Americans, they receive them
0.24 under a hellish fire that literally decimated
the Japanese formations. During this period,
0.24 the Japanese lose at least 3,500 soldiers
killed and almost 6,000 wounded against about
0.24 260 American soldiers killed.
0.24 The Japanese finally realize that the Solomon
Islands area, where they have been fighting
0.24 since 1942, is definitely lost. As is
the case on many conquered islands, the
0.24 Americans are often content after a
victory to leave small garrisons there
0.24 in order to isolate the surviving Japanese
troops until the end of hostilities.
0.24 That said, the Japanese can perhaps take
comfort in realizing that their troops
0.24 continue their progress in India
along the front of Imphal at late
0.24 March. But these gains in India don&;t square well with
the fact that in neighboring Burma, the Japanese
0.24 are forced to retreat in several places due to Chindit attacks.
0.24 Despite all, the Japanese in India are
stubborn, they emerge in the plain of Imphal,
0.24 northeast of India, and they end up
gradually surrounding the British garrison
0.24 mainly made up of Indian soldiers, but
the latter resist and they support
0.24 the seat of the city.
0.24 On April 24, still in India, the British launched
an offensive between the cities of Imphal
0.24 and Kohima in order to keep open a
rare road allowing supplies and
0.24 break the encirclement of the Japanese against Imphal.
0.24 Three weeks later, on May 12, Chinese
forces invade northern Burma
0.24 to take the Japanese from behind and, ultimately,
force them to evacuate India. In
0.24 the facts, this double pressure exerted
by the British and Chinese allies obliges
0.24 the Japanese to consider a general
retreat from the Indochinese front.
0.24 As expected, the Japanese evacuated
India on May 31. The seat of
0.24 the city of Imphal, which lasted three months,
was definitively lifted on the next June 20.
0.24 And while the situation of the Japanese is
deteriorating in India and Burma, it&;s not
0.24 little better in the Pacific islands.
Indeed, on June 15, in the logic continuity
0.24 of their strategy by leaps and bounds,
the American soldiers landed this time
0.24 in the Mariana Islands, located in the middle of nowhere!
0.24 In fact, the Mariana Islands are located
about 3,000 kms north of the
0.24 Papua New Guinea, about the same
distance east of the Philippines,
0.24 and also about the same distance southeast of
Japan. Do you have your maps? I hope
0.24 so!
0.24 Just remember that, again, the objective
is to get closer to Japan and to
0.24 build naval air bases. One of the most
important islands of the Marianas is
0.24 that of Saipan located in the north of the archipelago.
Americans set foot there on June 15,
0.24 1944. The Marianas campaign lasts at
least three weeks and it isn&;t
0.24 all rest. Although victorious, the
Americans fought for three weeks
0.24 of untold savagery. They lose 14,000
soldiers, including 3,400 killed.
0.24 For their part, and as usual, the
Japanese garrison are almost annihilated:
0.24 of the 30,000 soldiers present, at least
24,000 were killed in action and 5,000
0.24 others commit suicide. Yes, the American
soldiers are the sad witnesses of these
0.24 mass suicides among their enemies. And
to these military losses must be added
0.24 those suffered by civilians, because the
Marianas have many Japanese inhabitants. At
0.24 least 7,000 of them are killed, of whom
about 1,000 killed themselves under
0.24 the "encouragement" of the army, by throwing
themselves from the top of the cliffs.
0.24 I&;d like at this stage of the conflict to be
able to tell you that this war is over,
0.24 that the horrors are now a thing of
the past, but you know it&;s not
0.24 the case. I momentarily leave the Pacific
and its nightmares aside to bring you
0.24 again in Europe. We&;re still in the first half
0.24 of 1944. On January 16, American General Dwight
Eisenhower arrived in London to assume
0.24 the command of a new theater of operations: Western Europe.
0.24 Naturally, the secrecy surrounding the
scale invasion project with the code
0.24 name Overlord must be kept at all costs. The hope of
finally being able to liberate France and West
0.24 Europe is very real, but it has to be done right.
0.24 An immense logistical, tactical and strategic
preparation is necessary, even vital
0.24 to the smooth running of operations. In addition
to a huge deployment in terms of staff
0.24 and materials involved, which I&;ll come
back to in a moment, the soldiers
0.24 allies continue a most intense training.
0.24 The month of April is particularly active in this
regard, allied soldiers of different nationalities
0.24 train in combat and amphibious assault exercises.
0.24 The initial date set for the offensive
is June 5, but deteriorating meteorological
0.24 conditions forces the Allied high command
to postpone the landing for 24 hours.
0.24 The operation therefore officially takes
place on June 6, or more precisely in
0.24 the night of June 5 to 6, because
from the very end of the day of the 5
0.24 June and in the night around the 6th, more than
1,000 bombers attacked the German coastal batteries.
0.24 Still in the middle of the night, about
30,000 American, British and Canadians
0.24 paratroopers are dropped over
Normandy, especially at the ends
0.24 east and west of the demarcated front area.
0.24 Still in the middle of the night of June 6 until
the wee hours of the morning, no less than
0.24 160,000 infantry divided into two American
infantry divisions, two British troops
0.24 divisions and a Canadian division, assisted
by some international contingents at the
0.24 smaller numbers, take the beaches of Normandy by storm!
0.24 That&;s it! The liberation of France begins!
However, the battle is hard, savage even
0.24 in some places. For example, American
soldiers landing at Omaha Beach
0.24 are greeted by a deluge of fire.
0.24 The day of June 6, 1944 is costly for
the Allies, their losses amount to
0.24 at least 10,000 men, including 4,000 soldiers
killed, their losses are at least double
0.24 from those of the Germans, but bits
of Normandy beaches were conquered.
0.24 Five bridgeheads were established at the
start of the day on June 7, the day after
0.24 this dual amphibious and airborne operation.
Operation Overlord is to date the
0.24 greatest amphibious invasion in history,
0.24 it marks the beginning of the liberation
of France after four years of Nazi
0.24 occupation. What is more, and Stalin can
now finally rejoice in it, another front
0.24 is open to Western Europe. Still,
the hard meteorological conditions
0.24 of June 6 and the high tides make the task particularly
0.24 painful for the attackers on the beaches.
German resistance is also variable
0.24 from one landing sector to another, and let&;s
add that the parachute drops sometimes
0.24 are far from precise. In the American
sector of operations, paratroopers
0.24 sometimes land 30 kms from their
objective! Yes, it&;s not close
0.24 at all!
0.24 So, the Allies attacked on the
beaches along a front of about
0.24 of 80 kms. American soldiers disembark at the end
0.24 west of the front, on beaches codenamed
Utah and Omaha. As for the Anglo-Canadian
0.24 troops, they land east of the
Americans on beaches coded Gold,
0.24 Juno and Sword. On some occasions, strong winds cause
0.24 deviate the landing craft to the east
with sometimes disastrous consequences,
0.24 especially for the Americans in the Omaha
sector who are received with
0.24 uninterrupted gusts of machine guns and mortars.
0.24 In addition, under the supervision of Marshal
Rommel, the beaches are mined and strewn with
0.24 anti-tank obstacles to the point where the German
resistance, without completely stopping the landing,
0.24 seriously manages to slow down the Allies.
0.24 Indeed, they don&;t reach the goals
set on D-Day, i.e., for the
0.24 same day of June 6. For example, major
cities like Carentan, Saint-Lô
0.24 and Bayeux are still in German hands on
June 6. As for the capital of Normandy,
0.24 the city of Caen, this one is also
under German control on June 6th.
0.24 In the immediate term, given that all
the D-Day goals haven&;t been achieved,
0.24 the Allies prioritize the consolidation then
the connection of the five bridgeheads on the
0.24 beaches. Clearly, the priority is as follows:
form a continuous front while pursuing
0.24 advance in order to get out of the
beaches as quickly as possible.
0.24 The next days of the Normandy campaign
saw the Allies advance more
0.24 deep inland and, logically, the Germans bring
0.24 reinforcements once recovered from
the shock wave of the landing.
0.24 At late June, the Allies present a united
and consolidated front. The hope of the Germans
0.24 throwing them back into the sea is gradually
fading away. Moreover, sign that the
0.24 Allies settle, they build on the
beaches two artificial seaports to
0.24 ensure their supply, plus to benefiting from
the recently liberated port of Cherbourg.
0.24 From now on, you&;ll have understood it, the
second front is indeed a reality, after
0.24 four years away. The liberation of
France is underway! I&;ll come back!
0.24 Now I want to talk to you about
what&;s going on in the air warfare.
0.24 As you can imagine now, the rate of
aerial bombardments is intensifying
0.24 in 1944. It&;s above all the Axis countries
that bear the brunt of these attacks
0.24 more deadly. On February 19 begins a series of bombardments
0.24 on Leipzig, it&;s in fact the beginning
of an operation lasting one
0.24 week, which is nicknamed the "Big week".
0.24 The idea behind the "Big Week", which
lasts until February 25, is to
0.24 take from the German aircraft industry
and coerce the Luftwaffe to a large
0.24 air battle to possibly reduce its
strength in the western part of Europe
0.24 in the context of the Normandy
landings that we have just seen.
0.24 But the losses during the "Big week"
are significant, about 360 British
0.24 and American heavy bombers are shot down
and at least 2,000 airmen are killed, and
0.24 this, despite the increasing presence of
escort fighters. As for the Germans,
0.24 the "Big Week" cost them 250
fighters and 100 pilots killed.
0.24 The Allies nevertheless consider the
"Big Week" a success and they count
0.24 to continue other similar campaigns.
We also note that the bombers,
0.24 as I had already mentioned, extend their
radius of action and that the losses
0.24 among civilians are becoming stronger. And
you believe that the Germans let them
0.24 just do? Well, no! On June 13,
while we fight in Normandy,
0.24 V-1 type missiles fall on England.
0.24 As Hitler is pressed to direct this
new technology against the Allies
0.24 front in Normandy, this one requires rather
that the missiles fall against the British
0.24 civilians. The idea being, according to him, to obtain a
0.24 kind of revenge against D-Day and he firmly
believes that these missiles, all the same
0.24 murderers, will bring him victory.
0.24 What is certain is that at the end of
June 1944, the Allies, still stuck
0.24 in Normandy, have not yet reached the
launch bases of these famous missiles.
0.24 It&;s even expected that the pace of these attacks
will intensify, that remains to be seen.
0.24 Let&;s just say that the British feel like
they&;re living again, under another
0.24 form, the Blitz of 1940.
0.24 On the naval front, the beginning of 1944
saw a marked improvement in the situation
0.24 of the Allies, in particular in the Atlantic Ocean,
in particular with regard to their control
0.24 of the seas and their position in
relation to the routing of supplies.
0.24 On the Pacific side, a major naval battle
takes place in the Philippine Sea on
0.24 June 19 and 20, 1944. In two days, the
American fleet inflicted a terrible defeat
0.24 to his Japanese opponent, it manages
to eliminate Japan&;s ability to drive
0.24 again large-scale operations at sea with aircraft carriers.
0.24 Along with the landing of American
troops in the Mariana Islands, the
0.24 Battle of the Philippine Sea is the
largest naval battle in history
0.24 in terms of the number of aircraft carriers involved.
No less than 24 units including at least
0.24 1,300 aircraft are taking part in the engagement.
The Americans call this battle
0.24 the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot,
as if it were a real game of
0.24 hunting because of the appalling and disproportionate
losses suffered by the Japanese.
0.24 Imagine: the Americans lose a damaged
battleship, about 120 planes of
0.24 combat and a hundred soldiers killed. On the Japanese
side, 3 aircraft carriers sunk, not damaged,
0.24 but well sunk, 600 aircraft lost and 3,000 troops killed!
0.24 No, we&;re no longer in 1941. From now on, the
Allies, and in particular the Americans,
0.24 impose their strategic agenda on the Japanese.
However, nothing is over in the Pacific.
0.24 I&;ll come back!
0.24 Now let&;s see what&;s happening on
the home front. Naturally, we
0.24 can&;t say everything for lack of time,
but I retain certain events in this first
0.24 half of 1944. On March 10, was
created in Greece a National
0.24 Liberation Policy Committee. Under the domination
of the Communists, this committee declares itself
0.24 in open struggle against the occupier and against
the government in collaboration with the
0.24 Germans.
0.24 Moreover, the committee also declares itself
against the Greek royal government
0.24 in exile. Clearly, if we read between lines,
difficult tomorrows are to be expected
0.24 for the Greek people. Can we talk about
a possible civil war? Maybe. That
0.24 we&;ll see.
0.24 A little further north, in Hungary, Operation
Margarethe began on March 19. It consists
0.24 in the military occupation of this country
by German troops, because, and this is
0.24 where the shoe pinches for the Germans and
in particular for the Nazis, the Fascist
0.24 Hungary government is secretly negotiating
a separate peace with the Allies.
0.24 Yeah!
0.24 German soldiers were quick to enter Hungary,
in particular to get their hands
0.24 on its few oilfields and take
effective control of Hungarians
0.24 troops remained loyal to the Axis, a
bit like we saw with the fall of Italy
0.24 the previous year. Operation Margarethe is also
0.24 motivated in the face of the threat of Soviet invasion,
which is very real and to which I&;ll return.
0.24 Still, Hitler, just to create a
diversion, met the Hungarian leader in
0.24 Austria, Admiral Horthy, from March 15 to 18
in order to leave Hungary without a command
0.24 when they occupy the country.
0.24 And it&;s not just in Hungary where things
are heating up for the Axis. On March 19,
0.24 Yugoslavs supporters attack the city of Trieste,
on the border between Italy and Slovenia.
0.24 The situation in Yugoslavia is getting more
and more out of control for the Germans.
0.24 The next week, on the 24th, the city of Rome
became the scene of a massacre of civilians.
0.24 In fact, 335 Italians, including a few dozen
Jews and members of the resistance are
0.24 murdered in the Ardeatine Pits.
0.24 It&;s about reprisals, because the day before,
on March 23, the Italian resistance killed
0.24 32 S.S. soldiers and wounded 110
others. This is the biggest attack
0.24 of Italian supporters since the fall of
the fascist regime the previous year.
0.24 On June 2, in the context of the imminent
landing in Normandy, is created
0.24 the Provisional Government of the
French Republic to giving France
0.24 a government at the time of his release.
0.24 But this liberation, as we have seen, doesn&;t take
place without clashes, and here I&;m talking
0.24 of the fate reserved for French civilians. On
June 10, four days after the start of the
0.24 landing, the SS massacred an entire
community, that of Oradour-sur-Glane,
0.24 near Limoges.
0.24 No less than 642 men, women and children were
executed in the harshest conditions
0.24 that one can imagine, in particular
some being burned alive inside a church.
0.24 Like previous massacres perpetrated by the occupier,
0.24 it&;s often, but not always, retaliatory for the actions
0.24 of the local resistance.
0.24 Come on, let&;s leave the apocalyptic
flames of Oradour to head to another
0.24 hell, that of the Italian front in this second
half of 1944. On June 3, Rome was declared
0.24 city ​​opened by the Germans and the latter
withdrew again towards the north. The day after,
0.24 the Allies make their entry there.
The Eternal City is now free!
0.24 However, resistance grew stronger
from mid-August when the Allies
0.24 reach one of the last major German
defensive lines in Italy which
0.24 is at the height of Florence: the Gothic Line.
0.24 This last position ends up by being
pierced and the Allies gradually emerge
0.24 in the plain of the river Po, near
from Venice, where roughly speaking
0.24 the front line at the very end of 1944,
but the progress towards Venice is slowed
0.24 down due to the weather, where the terrain
becomes bogged down with snow and rain.
0.24 In Greece, it&;s the turn of the capital
Athens to be liberated by the Allies
0.24 and local resistance forces. We notice that
the German soldiers evacuate the mainland
0.24 part of the country, but they occupy several
islands where the garrisons are relatively
0.24 isolated. Clearly, in Italy as in the Balkans,
0.24 the Axis forces fall back. The siege is tightening
in the southern part of the European front.
0.24 Let&;s see now what&;s happening in Russia
where, there too, the front is moving!
0.24 First, the liberation of Leningrad and the
advance of the Russian front towards the west
0.24 increase the threat of a Soviet invasion which
already hangs over Finland in the context
0.24 of the so-called Continuation War. Having been
unable to conclude an agreement on the delimitation
0.24 from their common border, the Soviets attacked
Finland on June 9 with the intention
0.24 to eliminate it from the conflict and thus
facilitate the advance towards Berlin.
0.24 The capital Helsinki is still out of
reach, but it&;s considered that the
0.24 Finland will sooner or later end up withdrawing
from the conflict in the face of the obvious
0.24 general deterioration of the entire Eastern
Front. But the Finnish front is relatively
0.24 secondary insofar as the main effort
of the Soviets is definitely
0.24 on the continent. On June 22, Stalin&;s
troops launched Operation Bagration,
0.24 which constitutes one of the most important
offensives of the Red Army since the beginning
0.24 of hostilities.
0.24 For about two months, until mid-August,
the Soviets attacked in Belarus
0.24 and manage to destroy the Central Group
of German Army. It&;s certainly a
0.24 major defeat for the Wehrmacht whose
remnants fall back hastily towards
0.24 Poland. Operation Bagration cost the Germans
0.24 no less than 450,000 soldiers killed and prisoners,
plus to seeing 300,000 of their comrades
0.24 trapped in the Courland Pocket, a peninsula west of Latvia.
0.24 The northern part of the Russian front breaks
up and the soldiers of the Red Army advance
0.24 during the summer in Lithuania, Poland
and Romania. It&;s literally the stampede
0.24 on the Axis side, the front cracks not only
in the north, but also in the center and
0.24 south.
0.24 Clearly, the offensives are successful,
the Baltic States are gradually
0.24 liberated, as well as several towns in eastern Poland.
0.24 On July 24, the Soviets made the macabre
discovery of the Majdanek concentration camp,
0.24 near from Lublin, Poland. I&;ll return to
the horrors perpetrated in these camps
0.24 of death, because other camps of the same
type are unfortunately still in operation
0.24 at the time.
0.24 On the front line, the German resistance seems
stronger to the west of the front of the
0.24 Narva River, in Estonia, insofar as this
sector has a double strategic importance:
0.24 it&;s the gateway to East Prussia, German territory, then
0.24 makes the connection with the Gulf of
Finland for the control of the Baltic Sea.
0.24 On July 28, the Soviets entered Brest-Litovsk
in Belarus, the very place where they
0.24 had been forced to sign a humiliating
peace with the Germans in 1918.
0.24 Inevitably, the German border of
East Prussia ends up being reached
0.24 in mid-August, while the Red Army
continues its advance in Romania, and
0.24 given that the eastern front cracks
at several points, events jostle.
0.24 On August 23, Romania broke its alliance with
the Axis, his soldiers surrender to the Soviets
0.24 and the new Romanian government joins
the Allied camp. Another worrying sign
0.24 for the Axis: on September 4, Finland
negotiates a ceasefire with the USSR.
0.24 In the same continuity, the Soviets
entered Bulgaria on September 8
0.24 and the Bulgarians break their alliance with
the Axis the next day. Again, Bulgaria
0.24 joined the Allied camp. You "can" say at this point
0.24 that things are really not going well for
the Axis; it&;s the least we can say! The
0.24 bad news continues to unfold. The
next day, September 15 begins what
0.24 we can call the Lapland War.
0.24 This consists of a declaration of war from
Finland to Germany to respect the terms
0.24 of the armistice signed with the USSR, against
which it remains technically in a state of
0.24 conflict, and force the Germans to withdraw
their troops from Finnish territory.
0.24 The diplomatic situation between Finland and
the USSR is finally regularized with the signing,
0.24 on September 19, of a treaty which puts an end
to the Continuation War which has lasted since
0.24 1941. Freed from the Finnish front, the Soviets
0.24 can concentrate their efforts in the Baltic
countries. Estonia is, so to speak,
0.24 liberated at late September and the Red Army
is clearly marching towards the Polish
0.24 territory, of which they already occupy
certain towns in the south-east.
0.24 On October 1, the Soviets entered Yugoslavia,
a country where the fronts met
0.24 of the East and the Balkans. A few days
later, it was the turn of Hungary and
0.24 of Slovakia to see the boots of the Red Army on their soil.
0.24 In this new front sector of central-eastern
Europe, we can say that the resistance
0.24 of the Axis is especially strong in Hungary.
From October 6 to 29, the Battle of
0.24 Debrecen in the east of the country where German and
Hungarian soldiers who remained loyal to the
0.24 regime, temporarily slowed the Soviet advance.
0.24 Further north, the German resistance remains
very strong on the border of the
0.24 East Prussia, especially around the
Neman River, although on the whole,
0.24 we understand that the Axis situation is
out of control on the Eastern front.
0.24 On December 29, as the year draws to a
close, the Hungarian capital of Budapest
0.24 is under siege. Inside the city are about 75,000 soldiers
0.24 Germans and Hungarians ready to do
battle again with the Soviet invader.
0.24 The siege looks long. I&;ll come back!
0.24 Now let&;s go to the Pacific side. The
Allies continue the reconquest of the
0.24 territories occupied by the Japanese.
Take out your maps again!
0.24 For example, on July 6, the battle rages
on the island of Saipan, in the Marianas.
0.24 Probably the biggest banzai-type infantry charge. Not
0.24 less than 4,000 Japanese soldiers were killed
that day and the island, which would become
0.24 in turn an important naval air base, was
definitively conquered on July 9.
0.24 On July 24, it&;s the turn of the island
of Tinian, still in the Marianas, to be
0.24 taken by assault. The Americans plan
to build a major air base in Tinian
0.24 for their B-29 type long range bombers
which will directly attack the
0.24 Japanese territory and, who knows, will
deploy the future atomic bomb there!
0.24 During August, its observes that American
and Chinese forces are progressing
0.24 in northern Burma with the capture of
the important city of Myitkyina. Still
0.24 in August, the island of Guam is liberated,
as are all the Marianas which, like
0.24 I said, will be converted into air
bases to wage war against Japan.
0.24 In mid-September, the Americans landed at
Peleliu, an island located in the Palau
0.24 islands, halfway north of New Guinea and
east of the Philippines. Americans
0.24 had planned that the campaign would last
only four days, but the resistance is
0.24 terrible. The Japanese learned the lessons of their
0.24 previous defeats and they built
lines of defense in depth, all
0.24 dotted with fortifications, not to mention the
usual fanaticism displayed by their troops.
0.24 The conquest of this island of barely
15 kms2 lasts at least two months!
0.24 The American victory is achieved, but
raising controversy, apart from the
0.24 presence of a small airstrip, the strategic
value of Peleliu seems strongly
0.24 questionable in view of the heavy
losses suffered by the Marines.
0.24 They can nevertheless think that the capture
of Peleliu is part of a global strategy
0.24 which is to tighten the siege against
the Philippines, the next big goal
0.24 of the allies. The campaign that begins for the capture
0.24 of this ambitious objective must last
several weeks, in what will be both a
0.24 land battle and a sea battle. On
October 20, 1944, the battle began
0.24 from the Philippines.
0.24 For three days, the US Navy waged
a fierce battle against its rival
0.24 Japan in Leyte Gulf, the battle is
terrible because American marines
0.24 discover with horror and astonishment
that Japanese airmen are now using a
0.24 new tactic to sink enemy naval units: Kamikazes!
0.24 A Japanese word that can be translated as "divine
wind", the kamikaze is a pilot who performs
0.24 a suicide mission by throwing his device
full of explosives against a target.
0.24 Considered a priori more effective than a
conventional attack, the kamikaze-type mission
0.24 observed for the first time in
Leyte Gulf in October 1944, at a
0.24 a time when Japan&;s hope of winning the war was dwindling.
0.24 We remember that at this stage of the conflict,
the Japanese lost several naval air battles,
0.24 their best pilots have been killed,
their aircraft models are
0.24 gradually overtaken by those of their
enemies and they have lost control of the
0.24 tunes.
0.24 Japanese losses of skilled pilots
mean it&;s becoming increasingly
0.24 difficult to replace them and to take
the time necessary to train new ones.
0.24 What&;s more, the Japanese aeronautical
industry is no longer able to meet the
0.24 ever-increasing demands for new
aircraft in large quantities.
0.24 Combined with the unwavering will of the Japanese
not to capitulate, all these factors
0.24 are to be considering in the decision of
the Japanese command to resort henceforth
0.24 to suicide bombers as the Allies
approached Japanese territory.
0.24 Simultaneously, the Allies go there for
an amphibious operation with a landing
0.24 in the region of Leyte, located in the center of
the Philippines. The Americans are deploying
0.24 200,000 soldiers accompanied by a few
thousand Filipino guerrilla fighters.
0.24 Opposite, it&;s estimated that 80,000
Japanese fighters intend to defend
0.24 ferociously not only the Gulf of Leyte,
but of course all of the Philippines. As
0.24 still the fights are wild, but the situation
quickly turns to the advantage
0.24 of the Allies given the general
state of the Japanese army.
0.24 At this stage of the war, the garrisons of the
Japanese empire have more and more difficulties
0.24 to resupply properly due to the high
loss rate suffered by their units
0.24 of maritime transport. In the Philippines, the
number of Japanese soldiers is estimated at 50,000
0.24 fallen in combat from October to December 1944.
0.24 Of this number, about 80% would have
been put out of action due to illness or
0.24 famine, which already says a lot
about the state of the Japanese army.
0.24 And as I mentioned, the Philippines campaign
is also distinguished by the immense
0.24 naval air battle which takes place there from
October 23 to 26. The United States, assisted
0.24 by units of the Australian Navy, won a decisive victory.
0.24 The purpose of the Battle of Leyte Gulf being
to prevent the Japanese from reinforcing the
0.24 Philippines at the time of the Allied amphibious
landing. Again, the losses of the
0.24 Japanese navy are catastrophic, and the word is weak.
0.24 No less than 26 surface units, 46 troop
transports and a few hundred ships
0.24 merchants are sunk on the Japanese side, the
importance of these naval losses can be explained
0.24 partly because the Philippines is rich
in natural resources that have long
0.24 fueled the Japanese war industry, especially oil.
0.24 The end of 1944 in the Pacific doesn&;t
quite mark the end of the campaign
0.24 from the Philippines. The front is gradually
moving north to reach the region of
0.24 Luzon where Japanese resistance is still being felt.
0.24 Now I bring you again to the
western front, that&;s, to
0.24 the theater of operations in France. Yes,
in France! It&;s been pretty quiet since
0.24 the defeat of 1940, but this front has been
revived since the Allied landings in Normandy.
0.24 I mentioned before that the objectives
that the Allies had set on the day D
0.24 had not all been reached. This is normal,
because the resistance of the German army
0.24 became increasingly strong in
late June and early July 1944.
0.24 As they advanced inland, the Allies realized how
0.24 the terrain is difficult. In fact, they had not
really taken into account the difficulties
0.24 for their soldiers to have to fight
in what&;s called the "bocage", i.e.,
0.24 in these famous hedges that
characterize the Normandy landscape.
0.24 The hedges are so dense and bushy, that
it becomes really difficult for
0.24 infantrymen as for armored vehicles
to force their way through.
0.24 On the other hand, for the German defenders,
the bocage becomes useful to them
0.24 insofar as it makes it possible to create
ambushes, to hide nests of machine guns, to
0.24 even as sharpshooters, the "snipers".
0.24 In short, Allied intelligence had misjudged
this danger, to the point where American,
0.24 British and Canadians soldiers often
have to improvise ways to get through
0.24 hedges, in particular by using
shear-clamps mounted on the tanks.
0.24 Still, despite the harshness of the
fighting, particularly in the region of
0.24 Caen where the Anglo-Canadian troops face the
formidable Waffen S.S., the city of Caen
0.24 ends up being released on July 9, a month after the landing.
0.24 The fall of Caen marks the gradual weakening
of the German front in Normandy.
0.24 Moreover, on July 17, one of the main
commanders of this front, Marshal Erwin
0.24 Rommel, is seriously injured when his
vehicle is machine-gunned by a plane
0.24 ally. Not only are the Germans losing an excellent
0.24 strategist and a charismatic leader, but
their front is falling apart more and more.
0.24 On July 25, the Americans began Operation Cobra, which
aimed to break through the western part of the
0.24 Normandy front, when the bulk of the
German forces tried to resist the
0.24 Anglo-Canadians around Caen.
0.24 So, west of the front, the Americans are carrying
out the breakthrough and the war of movement
0.24 picks up again from the end of July
and the beginning of August. The
0.24 events jostle and things are going badly for the Germans.
0.24 From August 12 to 21, several tens of thousands
of German soldiers are almost surrounded
0.24 in a pocket forming around the town of Falaise.
0.24 The Battle of the Falaise Pocket sees
the Germans trapped to the west by
0.24 the arrival of the Americans, then to the north
and to the east by the tightening of the siege
0.24 under pressure from British, Canadian and Polish troops.
0.24 Although many German soldiers did
manage to escape the encirclement,
0.24 others, numbering in the thousands,
are literally killed by ruthless
0.24 grapeshot Allied armor and aircraft, or are taken prisoner.
0.24 And here you probably see me coming, because
the end of the battle of the Falaise Pocket,
0.24 on August 21 means, if you look at the
map, that the road to Paris is open!
0.24 But I&;ll come back!
0.24 Before, I want to briefly mention that as the events unfold
0.24 de Falaise, the Allies launched Operation
Dragoon on August 15. What is it about?
0.24 Quite simply: a landing in the south
of France, more precisely in
0.24 Provence. The idea is to secure French ports
0.24 in the Mediterranean and then to increase
the pressure on the Western front by creating
0.24 a sort of second front further south.
0.24 German resistance to this new landing
is relatively weak compared
0.24 what we saw in Normandy, the German
soldiers present in the sector aren&;t
0.24 necessarily elite troops and the
French resistance plays a role
0.24 noticeable in order to secure passageways for the landing.
0.24 A general retreat is ordered to
establish a new defensive line
0.24 in the Vosges, near from the German border.
0.24 But now, as promised, I&;m coming back to
Normandy. We&;re on August 25, 1944.
0.24 German forces retreat. What does that mean?
Yes, Paris can be seen in the distance!
0.24 The City of Light is at your fingertips!
With some astonishment, they realize,
0.24 on the one hand, that the Germans flee the
capital without trying to defend it then,
0.24 on the other hand, that they don&;t execute
the orders given them to proceed
0.24 to a systematic destruction of the city.
0.24 Consequently, the Allies made their entry into
the French capital on August 25, after
0.24 four years of occupation. Without wishing
to fall into sentimentality, it doesn&;t
0.24 hides the joy, even the delirium experienced
by the Parisian population and the allies
0.24 troops, including those of the French soldiers
who took part in the liberation of Paris.
0.24 The liberation of the capital is quickly
followed by that of several other French
0.24 cities in the general context of
the collapse of the German front.
0.24 What&;s more, the Allied soldiers from
Normandy made their connection with those
0.24 arrived from Provence in early September.
The Allied front is unified and is preparing
0.24 to move east, while Parisians celebrate their liberation.
0.24 The Germans retreat hastily to the
east, where their intentions seem
0.24 quite clear: to defend the western border
of Germany, which becomes the new
0.24 front line. Therefore, the Allies are advancing rapidly
0.24 in the northeast of France. The coastal cities
along the English Channel are quickly
0.24 liberated, to the point where the Allies even
entered Belgium in early September 1944.
0.24 The Allies also entered Luxembourg and
even set foot on German territory,
0.24 in Aachen. Naturally, as soon
as the German border is reached,
0.24 it&;s normal for resistance to intensify.
Resistance looks strong against
0.24 the Siegfried Line, a defensive line
originally built in the 1930s to
0.24 facing the Maginot Line. The Siegfried
Line runs along the western border
0.24 from Germany to the Netherlands to
Switzerland, it&;s made up of thousands
0.24 of bunkers, tunnels and anti-tank traps.
0.24 Also in September, but further north of the
front, the Allies launched the operation
0.24 Market Garden, which lasts a week, from
the 17th to the 25th. But what is it
0.24 exactly? Well, the idea is to take the
0.24 Flanking Germans by liberating the city of Arnhem
in the Netherlands by creating a kind of salient
0.24 at least 100 kms completely north
of the front, in what appears to be
0.24 a huge pincer movement by creating
a bridgehead on the other side
0.24 of the Rhine.
0.24 By doing so, an invasion route to
northern Germany would be created. Not
0.24 less than 40,000 Anglo-American paratroopers
were to take part in the battle. They must
0.24 capture strategic bridges and hold
them long enough for troops
0.24 on the ground join them as quickly as possible.
0.24 Operation Market Garden, which is
the largest airborne operation in
0.24 the war so far, is a partial
success, as a few cities
0.24 are liberated in the Netherlands, but the
famous bridgehead beyond the Rhine can&;t be
0.24 established, hence the famous
expression “A Bridge Too Far“.
0.24
0.24 The Allies experience many logistical and
coordination problems between the troops
0.24 airborne and those on the ground, not to
mention the strong German resistance in the
0.24 Arnhem area.
0.24 The failure of the Allies to establish this
famous bridgehead on the other side
0.24 of the Rhine put an end to the very legitimate
hopes of ending the war in the West in 1944.
0.24 Allied losses are at least twice as high
as those of the Germans, with at least
0.24 least 15,000 troops lost, including
6,000 paratroopers taken prisoner.
0.24 Clearly, the war in the West continues. In
October, American soldiers came up against
0.24 at the Siegfried Line, as the Canadians
struggled through Belgium and the
0.24 Netherlands. A first major German city,
Aix-la-Chapelle, fell on October 21.
0.24 Also in the fall, fierce fighting involving
American soldiers takes place
0.24 in the Hurtgen forest, a few kilometers
east of the German-Belgian border.
0.24 Strategically, the Hurtgen forest
constitutes, if it falls, a gateway
0.24 towards the center of Germany and the German
command wishes to have this sector in
0.24 view of a new offensive that he intends to
launch to reconquer the lost territories.
0.24 What? A new offensive? This implies that the
German command would therefore still be
0.24 capable of launching another major offensive
in the West, as in the heyday of
0.24 1940? Does he have the means to do all this?
0.24 Well, yes! The German general staff is
counting on the winter weather, on the
0.24 precarious supply situation for the
Allies and on the dispersal of their
0.24 troops to go for a final attempt to reconquer France!
0.24 Gathering all their remaining soldiers,
the Germans attack in the Ardennes on
0.24 December 16, 1944 and it&;s serious. The
attack begins early in the morning, a few
0.24 days before Christmas, in this Belgian
forest that we now know is passable.
0.24 About 400,000 German soldiers, 1,400 tanks and
1,000 planes, in short, all that remains of
0.24 the army in the West take the same
path as their predecessors in 1940.
0.24 It&;s the same battlefield!
0.24 The attack therefore begins in the Ardennes,
then the German divisions move
0.24 to Luxembourg and the north-east of France. The
idea justifying this offensive of the last
0.24 hope lies in preventing the Allies from using the
port of Antwerp at full capacity to improve
0.24 their supplies, then to dislocate their
front to isolate their armies to negotiate
0.24 an eventual peace in favor of the Axis.
0.24 Quite frankly, the Allies didn&;t see it coming.
The surprise is total in the morning
0.24 of December 16. Overconfident and not benefiting
from adequate aerial reconnaissance
0.24 due to the weather, the Allied troops,
and more particularly the Americans,
0.24 take the hardest blow and probably their
heaviest casualties of the war.
0.24 The territory gains on the German side are
significant, the Allied front retreats
0.24 less to Dinant, Belgium. The next day,
in Malmedy, which is near from Dinant,
0.24 the German Waffen S.S. assassinate 84 American
war prisoners. That says a lot about
0.24 the savagery of the clashes, it&;s merciless.
0.24 However, German losses, although small
at the start of the battle due to
0.24 of the element of surprise, end up
rising dangerously and, contrary to
0.24 those of the Allies, these losses are now irreplaceable.
0.24 American soldiers resist with the energy of
despair, this is particularly the case in
0.24 the sector of the Bastogne road junction,
in Belgium. The municipality is quickly
0.24 under siege. Until Christmas Day, the alley command
0.24 is seriously considering the possibility
of a general retreat, as in 1940!
0.24 However, the shock wave of surprise eventually
passed and, importantly, the weather
0.24 improves, allowing the air force to once
again play its role of reconnaissance
0.24 enemy positions.
0.24 Around December 23, the American soldiers
counter-attacked and eventually relieved
0.24 the siege of Bastogne on Boxing Day,
which somehow confirms not the
0.24 end of the Battle of the Bulge, but at least
the failure of the initial German offensive.
0.24 In fact, this battle, due to the size of the
troops involved and the seriousness of the
0.24 events, is expected to last several weeks.
It occupies the rest of the year
0.24 1944 on the Western front.
0.24 Although the long-awaited front breakthrough
wasn&;t achieved for the Germans,
0.24 their offensive delays the Allied advance
towards Germany. In fact, the offensive
0.24 planned on German territory at the
end of 1944 was delayed by five
0.24 at six weeks. And as you&;ll have understood, the Germans
0.24 deplete just about all their remaining
military resources on the Western Front.
0.24 This is at least the observation that can
be made as the year draws to a close
0.24 1944 and the first glimmers of 1945 are dawning.
0.24 The losses suffered by the Germans also
weakened their defense of the famous Line
0.24 Siegfried, which is in a way the
gateway to German territory.
0.24 Can the Germans still hope to win
the war? Clearly, the offensive
0.24 in the Ardennes doesn&;t bring the expected
results. Can Hitler then bet on
0.24 new technologies, such as its famous V-1 and V-2 missiles?
0.24 Until the last days of 1944, these
missiles fell on England at a rate
0.24 still quite surprising and regular. In November,
it&;s estimated that an average of eight
0.24 missiles fall daily almost everywhere
in the British Isles, but above all
0.24 in London, killing and injuring a
considerable number of civilians.
0.24 Hitler is also betting on a new model
of fighter planes that are equipped
0.24 not a propeller engine, but a jet
engine! The first hunter equipped
0.24 of such technology was put into service in
the summer of 1944. This was the Messerschmidt
0.24 262, which shot down a first enemy aircraft on July 26.
0.24 Two days later, a first fight involving
another jet model, the Messerschmidt
0.24 163 "Komet" caused amazement among Allied
airmen, but the alleged damage inflicted
0.24 by these revolutionary contraptions are often exaggerated.
0.24 The mechanical defects of the engines, the
insufficient flight autonomy, especially for
0.24 the Komet, and the exhaustion of the German
aeronautical industry dampen the value
0.24 jet fighters in the military context of 1944.
0.24 However, it now seems certain that the heyday
of propeller planes is coming to an end,
0.24 but not right now. The Allies, and in particular
the Americans, are still counting on the
0.24 propeller technology to employ their
long-range aircraft in strategic
0.24 bombings missions. For example, in the Pacific, on July 10,
0.24 the Japanese capital Tokyo is bombed
for the first time since the famous
0.24 Jimmy Doolittle raid in early 1942.
In October the Americans now use
0.24 islands recently conquered to wage
war more and more regularly
0.24 in Japanese territory.
0.24 The island of Tinian in the Marianas sees
a major deployment of heavy bombers
0.24 B-29s that have sufficient range to
reach Japan and return to the same
0.24 starting basis.
0.24 Now, I wish to end this great review
of the year 1944 by briefly mentioning
0.24 events taking place on the domestic and diplomatic fronts.
0.24 First, on the home front, Chancellor Adolf
Hitler is the victim of another attempt
0.24 of murder at his headquarters in
Rastenburg, East Prussia, on 20
0.24 July. This umpteenth attempt almost succeeded.
0.24 Led by an officer named Claus von
Stauffenberg, the codenamed operation
0.24 of Valkyrie aims to kill Hitler and replace
him with another leader who will put
0.24 end to the war.
0.24 More specifically, the idea is to take
political power in Germany by taking over
0.24 the control of the armed forces from the hands of
the Nazis and the S.S., then, of course, to make
0.24 peace with the Allies, at least
those on the Western front ASAP.
0.24 Why do I say that Operation Valkyrie
almost succeeded? Well because a
0.24 bomb concealed in a briefcase placed under
a conference table where Hitler is
0.24 meeting with his staff explodes
and causes significant damage.
0.24 The problem? Well, the famous briefcase
containing the powerful bomb wasn&;t placed
0.24 at the exact spot to kill the leader of the
Third Reich for sure. It&;s assumed that a
0.24 officer located near Hitler would have used his
foot to push away the briefcase which encumbered
0.24 his movements, thus making it possible to distance
the bomb somewhat from its main target.
0.24 Naturally, once recovered from the shock,
Hitler ordered terrible reprisals against
0.24 the perpetrators of the attack and their families,
including von Stauffenberg, as well as the
0.24 Marshal Rommel, much less involved
and of whom we now know the great
0.24 service status. The latter chooses
suicide in order to spare his family.
0.24 The plot resulted from the combined efforts
of several anti-Nazi resistance groups
0.24 in Germany, but that doesn&;t prevent the
secret state police, the terrifying
0.24 Gestapo, to arrest 7,000 people, of
whom about 5,000 will be executed
0.24 including Colonel von Stauffenberg.
0.24 A few days later, on August 1,
an insurrection of a magnitude
0.24 hitherto unmatched. The Polish Home Army,
which includes several organizations
0.24 of resistance engages a real battle
after five years of occupation.
0.24 This major insurgency operation began when Soviet forces
0.24 approach the Polish capital, on the
other side of the Vistula river.
0.24 However, on Stalin&;s orders, the Soviets
didn&;t intervene although their elements
0.24 the most advanced are indeed in the suburbs of Warsaw!
0.24 For 63 days, until October 2, Polish
insurgents clash with occupying German
0.24 forces. As I was saying, Stalin orders
his troops to halt, thus leaving the
0.24 time for the Germans to organize the systematic
repression and destruction of Warsaw.
0.24 The Western Allies try somehow to provide air supply
0.24 to the insurgents, but the effect remains
limited. In fact, it&;s likely that Stalin was
0.24 against the idea that the Poles take control
of their own country in hand before
0.24 until the Soviet dictator had time to
install a communist puppet state there.
0.24 They always fight and it&;s violent,
about 22,000 Polish fighters
0.24 are killed during the insurrection
and the reprisals are inhumane.
0.24 The German soldiers, made up essentially
of SS troops from the fine flower of
0.24 society, for example war criminals,
common criminals and even
0.24 Russian collaborators of the same ilk
murder at least 150,000 Polish civilians
0.24 in the week of August 5 to 12, 1944.
0.24 About half of these victims died
in the Wola district of Warsaw,
0.24 on direct orders from Hitler who demanded that
the Polish capital be razed to the ground.
0.24 We then witness improvised massacres.
Entire families are murdered,
0.24 rapes become a weapon of war, patients
are massacred in hospitals
0.24 with the nursing staff, all this at a time
when mock trials are taking place against
0.24 the main leaders of the July 20 plot.
0.24 And while the situation goes from bad to worse
for the Axis, Hitler orders, on October 18,
0.24 the conscription of all men aged 16
to 60 who aren&;t yet in the army,
0.24 whether valid or not. These people are
now obliged to serve in the militias
0.24 of the People&;s Army. The Volkssturm militiamen receive
0.24 basic training and they usually have military equipment
0.24 of second hand.
0.24 Responsible for supporting the regular army
in its mission of defense of the Reich, the
0.24 militiamen are placed not under the command of
the Wehrmacht which normally would have them
0.24 integrated into its hierarchical structure,
but under the Nazi Party, because Hitler
0.24 trusts the regular army less and
less since the July 20 attack.
0.24 Yeah, we got there! The mobilization
is truly total. The ideology before
0.24 everything.
0.24 Before concluding, let&;s talk about the diplomatic
front. From August 21 to October 7, 1944 is held, in
0.24 vicinity of Washington, Dumbarton Oaks Conference.
0.24 The representatives of the allied governments
discuss the principle of creating an international
0.24 organization after the war, in the
continuity of what had been said
0.24 at the Moscow conference the previous year.
0.24 There&;s now recognition of the need to
establish a new international organization to
0.24 replace the defunct League of Nations, the
organization to be born must henceforth
0.24 have coercive means to impose
peace in the event of conflict.
0.24 In other words, the Dumbarton Oaks conference
aims to define the principles and
0.24 basic structures of what will become a kind
of organization of "united nations".
0.24
0.24 And parallel to the events of Washington
is held the second conference of the city
0.24 from Quebec, Canada, from September 12 to 16.
The conference codenamed Octagon sees
0.24 the American and British governments
define the future zones of occupation
0.24 of the German territory once hostilities have ended.
0.24 President Roosevelt, who has just been elected
for a 4th term, discusses with his British
0.24 counterpart, Churchill, of what is known as the
Morgenthau Plan, a plan which consists of
0.24 the progressive demilitarization
of Germany once it&;s defeated.
0.24 The Americans and the British also agree in
Quebec on the maintenance of the lend-lease
0.24 agreement, i.e., economic aid
provided by the United States
0.24 to Great Britain. They also discuss the strategy
0.24 consider for the year 1945 in the Pacific,
more particularly with regard to
0.24 the future use of the atomic bomb, the
use of which seems more than probable,
0.24 as soon as a first copy is put into service.
0.24 As we can see, victory now seems
certain, but it&;s far from over!
0.24 I begin today the episode of the year 1945
of this series devoted to the
0.24 World War II. We have come a long way from the
0.24 first episode of the year 1939! Europe and
the world have been at war for five years.
0.24 Five years of suffering, massacres,
destruction, deportations and sacrifices
0.24 of all sorts.
0.24 And as the year 1945 begins, we
can reasonably think that the
0.24 victory of the Allies over the Axis forces
seems certain. I wouldn&;t say "certain",
0.24 but probably “acquired”. Why? Well,
let&;s see the situation on the different
0.24 foreheads. On the Western front, the Allies landed
0.24 in Normandy and liberated France. The
last chance German offensive in the
0.24 Ardennes is running out of steam. The
belligerents clash on the Rhine, along a
0.24 line that crosses the Netherlands
to the Swiss border. The war is now
0.24 at the gates of the Third Reich.
0.24 On the Eastern front, the Soviets have
reconquered all the territories lost since
0.24 1941. They march in Poland, Central Europe
and the Balkans. Stalin&;s soldiers
0.24 are also knocking on the doors of the Third
Reich. Germany is well and truly surrounded!
0.24 As for the Italian front, the 1943 landing
in Sicily and the Italian campaign which
0.24 ensued weren&;t easy. However, at
the beginning of 1945, the front
0.24 positions from East to West of the country at
the height of Venice. Here too, the siege
0.24 tighten. The Allies approach the Austrian border.
0.24 In the Pacific theatre, Japanese
troops still occupy large portions
0.24 of territories, whether in Burma, China
or the islands of Southeast Asia,
0.24 but we feel that the Allies have perfect
control of the strategic agenda and the
0.24 recent reconquests of 1944 bring them closer to Japan.
0.24 At sea, the German submarine threat is
still present, but it&;s in no way
0.24 comparable to that at the start of hostilities.
The German submariner danger is clearly
0.24 under control and the supply of the Allies
to Europe is progressing smoothly.
0.24 In the air, the German and Japanese air
forces certainly constitute threats but,
0.24 as at sea, these threats diminish. Strategic
bombings against German cities
0.24 and Japanese are daily and very deadly for civilians.
0.24 Is there any hope, in this context, that
the year 1945 might bring the end of this
0.24 which seems to be the deadliest war in
history? To find out, it&;s important
0.24 to return to the battlefields. Come
on, it&;s not over! 1945 awaits us!
0.24 Let&;s head towards the western front, because
it seems that this front is particularly
0.24 active at the very beginning of 1945, in the
context of the last hope offensive attempted by
0.24 the Germans in the Ardennes. And
it&;s not over! On January 1, in
0.24 full celebration of the New Year, the
Germans launch Operation Bodenplatte.
0.24 As the Battle of the Ardennes
fought a few days earlier, it&;s a
0.24 last-ditch offensive, but this time by air.
0.24 Operation Bodenplatte sees the
Luftwaffe attack Allied airbases
0.24 which are mainly located in Belgium and the Netherlands.
0.24 The idea behind the offensive is to
take back –momentarily at least– the
0.24 control of the sky in order to be able to relaunch
the land offensive of the Ardennes, but
0.24 with air support free of interference from Allied aircraft.
0.24 In fact, Operation Bodenplatte was planned for
December 16, 1944, i.e., at the same time
0.24 as the Ardennes offensive, but bad
weather forced the postponement.
0.24 Nevertheless, when the sky seems to be clearing
up, on January 1, and in the greatest secrecy,
0.24 about 1,000 German planes attack!
0.24 The Allies are taken by surprise, allowing
their enemies to record some
0.24 tactical successes, but no ultimate victory.
True, many Anglo-American devices
0.24 are destroyed on the ground, but these losses are
easily replaceable; on the other hand, each
0.24 German plane now destroyed in 1945
can be, for its part, considered as
0.24 irreplaceable. Strategically speaking, the operation
0.24 Bodenplatte is a failure for the Germans
who see the Allied aviation resume
0.24 initiative.
0.24 The Allies lose around 500 planes destroyed
or damaged, against around 250 for the
0.24 Germans. Despite all, as I said, the
losses of the Luftwaffe are materially
0.24 irreplaceable, just as it&;s proving
increasingly difficult to train pilots
0.24 of high level. In short: the Luftwaffe can no longer
0.24 fulfill its mission. From now on, it seems
certain that it&;ll play a marginal role
0.24 until the end of hostilities.
0.24 But the Allies weren&;t at the end of their
problems at the start of 1945. Although the clashes
0.24 in the Ardennes are experiencing a relative
respite, there has fighting further south.
0.24 The Germans this time attack the Franco-American
front in Alsace-Lorraine. The
0.24 fighting raged in the Colmar region
in the first week of January.
0.24 This latest German offensive in the West
seems to be justified by the thinness
0.24 of the front face them, insofar as
the Americans don&;t stop reinforcing
0.24 the Ardennes front in the north, but they
neglect the southern part of the defended line
0.24 by some reconstituted American and French troops.
0.24 They&;re not only fighting in Colmar, but
the Germans are trying to capture Strasbourg,
0.24 the Allied front is practically broken,
but the French and the Americans resist
0.24 as best they could. Further north,
in Belgium and the Netherlands,
0.24 Anglo-Canadian troops face strong
resistance, especially in the region
0.24 from the Ruhr in Germany and from Maas in Netherlands.
Here again, it seems clear that the conquest
0.24 of German territory will not be easy.
0.24 Despite all, the Allies can still be
satisfied, because in late January
0.24 1945, it seems certain that Germany on the
Western front no longer has any capabilities
0.24 of serious attacks. Progress towards Germany can resume!
0.24 The next challenge for the Allies is
now to cross the Rhine, this important
0.24 river which constitutes the natural border
separating Germany from Netherlands,
0.24 Belgium and Luxembourg to the Swiss border.
0.24 But, in all honesty, the Rhine is a
real obstacle, crossing it raises
0.24 both military feat and logistical challenge.
0.24 Admittedly, the Allies have an undeniable
air superiority, but the troops of the
0.24 German forces on the other side of the
river, despite their recent defeats, intend
0.24 dearly defend the national territory.
The idea would be to be able to capture
0.24 intact bridges that will allow the Allies
to quickly cross the Rhine while preventing
0.24 the Germans to reconstitute a solid front line.
0.24 The month of March 1945 saw the Allied forces
on the Western front deploying significant
0.24 logistical means for this famous crossing of
the Rhine, naturally, the risks associated
0.24 at the crossing -as we have just seen- are numerous.
0.24 The Allies set in motion Operation
Plunder, where the idea is to cross
0.24 the Rhine in several places, just to prevent
the Germans from offering resistance on
0.24 a specific point;
0.24 to do this, the Allies identify key
cities for the crossing, these
0.24 towns, from north to south, are: Wesel, Remagen and Mainz.
0.24 Large smoke screens are deployed, Allied
guns are constantly pounding the
0.24 enemy positions on the other
side of the river and the
0.24 Landing Craft type set off.
0.24 German resistance was particularly fierce
in the American sector of Remagen,
0.24 where crossing the Ludendorff Bridge
gives engineers a hard time, who
0.24 are under constant attack from German
infantry, the Luftwaffe and even missiles V-2.
0.24 Throughout these days of hell, the
0.24 Allies manage to cross the Rhine with
several of their infantry divisions
0.24 who now aim to rush towards the
industrial center of the Ruhr.
0.24 What&;s more, the Allied command launched
Operation Varsity on March 24, which
0.24 consisted of to drop several thousand
paratroopers east of the Rhine to
0.24 establish a another bridgehead and stop or
slow down possible enemy counter-attacks.
0.24 Unlike Operation Market Garden,
the previous fall, Operation
0.24 Airborne Varsity proves to be a resounding success.
On March 27, the Allied paratroopers are
0.24 firmly established east of the Rhine, thus
allowing a less risky crossing of the river
0.24 for the rest of the infantry who must follow the advance.
0.24 And this advance of the Allied forces
towards eastern Germany… well, it
0.24 going a little too fast! Why? Because
the Allies seek to coordinate their
0.24 movements with the Soviet forces coming from
the Eastern front. From a common agreement,
0.24 the Allies agree that the Soviets will capture Berlin.
0.24 For their part, more and more
Germans are realizing that the war
0.24 is indeed lost. On April 2, several
German armies are literally
0.24 surrounded in what is known as the “Ruhr pocket”,
0.24 about 300,000 soldiers of the
3rd Reich are gradually trapped
0.24 by the most advanced elements of the
British and American forces east of
0.24 the Ruhr. The Germans can also no longer
get out to the west, because the river
0.24 of the Rhine so difficult to
cross is now an obstacle to them!
0.24 Defeat looks inevitable. On April
18, as the Allied armies advanced
0.24 always towards the east, the north and the
south, these 300,000 men are surrounded
0.24 in the huge pocket between the towns
of Wesel, Remagen and Lippstadt.
0.24 The shock of the defeat affects not only the
soldiers, but also the German civilians,
0.24 the end of the battle of the Ruhr pocket
creates a wave of panic in the German
0.24 population who realizes that, from now on, the
war is indeed taking place on the national
0.24 territory.
0.24 Germany is a country of fire and blood.
The horror of material destruction
0.24 strikes the imagination of the Allied soldiers
who advance in the territory of the Third
0.24 Reich. But this is only the beginning, other
horrors await them. I&;ll come back to it.
0.24 Now let&;s take a look at the Italian front.
It&;s no longer such an active front
0.24 at the beginning of 1945, but the war
wasn&;t over for all that. The front line
0.24 crosses the country from east to west
between the cities of Ravenna and Genoa.
0.24 With the arrival of the beautiful season,
operations resume in the spring. April 6
0.24 marks the start of a general Allied
offensive in northern Italy. The
0.24 fighting is particularly intense in Lombardy.
0.24 The objective of the Allies is to push the
enemy as far as possible towards the Austrian
0.24 border, but the mountain range
formed by the Alps suggests
0.24 progress to Austria will be logistically difficult.
0.24 The Allied command hopes to retain on the Italian front a
0.24 maximum possible number of enemy troops,
while not neglecting any offensive opportunity
0.24 which would allow the front to be pushed further north.
0.24 In late April, large contingents
of Axis forces are surrounded
0.24 in the Bologna region. Without speaking of
total victory, the Allied strategists consider
0.24 that the war on the Italian front is almost over.
0.24 Of course, the German high command on
the Italian front is well aware of
0.24 the situation. In fact, on April 29, and
despite Hitler&;s refusal, the German general
0.24 staff in Italy makes the decision to capitulate.
0.24 All Axis forces on that front
immediately cease combat, the allies
0.24 capture and disarm hundreds of thousands of combatants.
0.24 The capitulation of the Axis troops in
Italy materialized on April 29, at the
0.24 royal palace of Caserta, near from Rome.
The treaty enters into force a few days
0.24 later on May 2, but the fighting is already
over. In short, the war in Italy is
0.24 well and truly finished.
0.24 Now let&;s move to the eastern front. As you know,
we have been fighting there since 1941,
0.24 since the famous German invasion of the
Soviet Union. Well, now in this beginning
0.24 of 1945, the roles are reversed. While
in 1941 the Germans were knocking
0.24 at the gates of Moscow, it&;s now the turn
of the Soviets to knock on those
0.24 from Berlin.
0.24 January 13 marks the beginning of a long
offensive by Stalin&;s soldiers in
0.24 the German province of East Prussia.
The idea being to capture this
0.24 German border region and head for Berlin,
the capital of the Third Reich.
0.24 It&;s the beginning of a campaign of more
than three months where the Soviets intend
0.24 put the pack there. Opposite, the Germans
manage with difficulty and misery to align
0.24 all available able-bodied men from
the regular army, but also with
0.24 conscripts of the people&;s militia of the Volkssturm.
0.24 The German soldiers intend to offer a very
strong resistance. In fact, the noise
0.24 short that the Soviet soldiers who enter
the territory of the Reich intend to act
0.24 in a ruthless manner.
0.24 There are rumors that the Soviets are
executing or deporting war prisoners
0.24 and that they don&;t hesitate to assassinate
or deport civilians, not to mention
0.24 rapes committed against women. Clearly, the
German resistance promises to be strong
0.24 on the side of the soldiers and civilians
try to flee the Soviet invasion.
0.24 A few days after the start of the offensive
in East Prussia, Soviet troops
0.24 enter Warsaw on January 17, they
install a puppet communist government
0.24 there and continue their progress
both in Poland and in East Prussia.
0.24 Red Army soldiers are also advancing
elsewhere, if only by exploiting
0.24 weaker points on the German front. For
example, on January 31, they cross
0.24 the Oder, an important river in eastern
Germany. In doing so, they&;re at this
0.24 date about 80 kms from Berlin. Further south
on the eastern front, February 13 marks
0.24 the end of the battle and the fifty-day long
siege against the Hungarian capital
0.24 from Budapest. Axis forces – made up of German
and Hungarian soldiers who remained
0.24 loyal to the fascist regime – capitulate.
0.24 The city of Budapest has clearly suffered,
it&;s almost totally destroyed and about
0.24 80,000 civilians died there, either
from disease, starvation or any other
0.24 kinds of deprivations associated with the siege.
The fall of Budapest confirms out of any
0.24 doubts the withdrawal of Hungary from
hostilities, but it also marks the opening
0.24 of another invasion route to
Berlin, this time from the south.
0.24 However, as I told you, the German resistance
on the Eastern front is particularly
0.24 strong. From March 6 to 15, 1945, the Germans attempted
a last ditch effort in the southern part
0.24 from the front, i.e., in Hungary, as
part of the operation entitled Spring
0.24 Awakening. This German operation in Hungary gives
0.24 the impression that it&;d be the last of
the Third Reich, which has little
0.24 almost no resource.
0.24 The battle of Spring Awakening is fought
south of Budapest, near from the lake
0.24 Balaton. It seems to be justified insofar
as it&;s absolutely necessary to secure the
0.24 Hungary&;s last oil reserves.
0.24 Moreover, a German victory in this sector would also block
0.24 for some time the road leading to Vienna.
0.24 The Battle of Spring Awakening can be
considered a tactical victory for the
0.24 Germans, but strategically the
Soviets still have the initiative.
0.24 In short, they&;re only delaying the inevitable defeat.
0.24 Indeed, the Soviets can replace the
tens of thousands of fallen soldiers
0.24 in this region between 6 and 15 March,
but this isn&;t the case for
0.24 Germans, who lost so many men.
0.24 At the end of March, the Red Army entered
Austria and approached Vienna. The battle
0.24 for the Austrian capital is part of a
context where one feels that Stalin
0.24 is in a hurry to conquer the whole country.
The latter wants to have a possible asset
0.24 with a view to upcoming negotiations with
the Allies on the redrawing of the
0.24 European map. Near from Austria, this time in Slovakia,
0.24 the capital Bratislava fell to the
Red Army in early April, almost
0.24 along with the loss to the Germans
of the important province of East Prussia.
0.24 The fall of the latter is another
blow for the armies of the Third
0.24 Reich. The Soviets took tens of
thousands of prisoners and the road to
0.24 Berlin seems more open than ever. I&;ll come back!
0.24 Now let&;s take a trip to the Pacific
side. The eventual victory of
0.24 Allied forces in this theater of operations at
the start of 1945 doesn&;t seem so certain
0.24 than in Europe. Certainly, we
have seen that since late
0.24 1942 and early 1943, the Japanese
retreated on all fronts in this immense
0.24 confrontation zone.
0.24 On January 5, for example, Japanese
troops retreated into Burma, pursued
0.24 relentlessly by the British soldiers. In late
January, the northeast of the country is gradually
0.24 liberated and the Japanese continued
their retreat towards China.
0.24 In early January, on the Philippines
side, American soldiers landed
0.24 in Luzon, in the northern part of the country.
The campaign for full possession of
0.24 Philippes definitely doesn&;t look easy.
0.24 For a month, i.e., from early February
to early March, intense fighting
0.24 take place in the capital Manila, in
what probably appears to be the worst
0.24 urban warfare of the Pacific campaign. The city
is razed and at least 100,000 civilians
0.24 perish either because of the fighting or
because they&;re murdered by the Japanese
0.24 soldiers.
0.24 Another milestone of the Pacific campaign
in 1945 was the Battle of Iwo Jima.
0.24 The name may not mean anything to you,
but it&;ll soon mark the American
0.24 imagination. You&;ll then say to me: "Yes, but Iwo
0.24 Jima… is it another insignificant island
or one of dubious strategic importance? As
0.24 that of, for example, Midway or
Tarawa? Well, almost, but not.
0.24
0.24 Iwo Jima is effectively a 20 kms2 island -yes, it&;s small!-
0.24 located 1,200 kms south of Japan,
halfway with the Mariana Islands,
0.24 but it&;s still located relatively "close"
to Japan and its capture could
0.24 serve as a take-off base for American
bombers, much like the Marianas do.
0.24 The Battle of Iwo Jima began on February 19,
1945, and the American command planned
0.24 from the outset that the conquest of
the island will last several weeks.
0.24 The island is heavily fortified, the bunkers
seem to outnumber the trees, the
0.24 Japanese artillery positions are almost
invisible to American observers.
0.24 All this is explained by the fact that
about 20 kms of tunnels were dug
0.24 to house the local garrison! Moreover,
Iwo Jima is recognized by the
0.24 presence of the imposing Mount Suribachi, a mountain
located in the southwest of the island
0.24 and which constitutes a formidable defensive position.
0.24 The American command has justified
concerns about the difficulty of the
0.24 task, but it can be reassured since they
dominates the sky and the sea, so the
0.24 Marines landed on the island under a real
hellfire of Japanese defenders well
0.24 organized and buried. The Americans
are deploying no less than
0.24 110,000 men to face an enemy garrison
estimated at 20,000 combatants. The
0.24 battle is terrible, terrible! For a
month, until March 26, Americans
0.24 – and this is a first in the Pacific
war – lose more soldiers than
0.24 the Japaneses.
0.24 No less than 26,000 fighters fell under
the Japanese grapeshot, or about 7,000
0.24 soldiers killed and some 19,000 injured.
As always, almost all of the garrison
0.24 Japanese is annihilated with 18,000 soldiers
killed, or having taken their own lives.
0.24 Fighting is raging all over the island
and especially for the conquest of the
0.24 Mount Suribachi, which finally falls on February
23. As soon as the position is captured, and
0.24 in what appears to be a staged war
correspondent Joe Rosenthal takes
0.24 a photo titled Raise of the American
Flag that quickly became iconic;
0.24 you have already seen this photo several times.
0.24 As I was saying, Iwo Jima is of definite
strategic importance, the island has
0.24 airstrips and once served as a forward
base to alert mainland Japan
0.24 of the arrival of bombers. Many were
the Japanese fighters who took off
0.24 island to intercept them.
0.24 Now, with the fall of Iwo Jima, the
roles are reversed. Americans put
0.24 hand on two airstrips located in the
center of the island, these will serve
0.24 emergency landing sites for B-29
bombers returning from missions.
0.24 Iwo Jima is therefore considered secure
around March 16, after a month of fighting.
0.24 Still in the Pacific, the other major battle
in sight for the Allies after Iwo Jima
0.24 consists of the capture of another island
of strategic importance: Okinawa.
0.24 There, it&;s undeniable, they&;re indeed
getting closer to Japan. Okinawa Island
0.24 is located about 640 kims south
of Tokyo, it&;s an island about
0.24 100 kms in length. You guessed it, no doubt,
0.24 the capture of Okinawa will allow the
Allies to build air bases for a
0.24 possible attack and invasion of Japan.
0.24 As at Iwo Jima a few weeks earlier, the Allies
– in fact, especially the Americans-
0.24 invest significant resources in what
seems to be the most important amphibious
0.24 operation since the beginning of the war in the Pacific.
0.24 The Battle of Okinawa which began on March
26, 1945 saw no less than 540,000 Americans
0.24 soldiers face about 110,000 Japanese
soldiers made up of regular troops
0.24 and islanders quickly conscripted for the invasion.
0.24 And do I surprise you if I say again
that the fighting in Okinawa is
0.24 to say the least intense and of an unnamed
savagery? To the usual resistance of
0.24 Japanese troops are joined by air
attacks from kamikaze planes.
0.24 From March 26 to July 2, the Americans lost
about 50,000 of their soldiers against 100,000
0.24 for the Japanese, plus around 150,000
civilians are also killed there,
0.24 including many students expressly mobilized for this battle.
0.24 These last losses are due, of course,
to fighting, but also to massive
0.24 suicides, about half the civilian
population of Okinawa is killed!
0.24 At sea, the Battle of Okinawa also proves
quite a spectacle; let&;s say it like
0.24 that. The Americans lost about 12
destroyers there, about 400 more of
0.24 their ships are damaged to varying
degrees, just as they lament until July
0.24 the loss of 750 aircraft.
0.24 On the Japanese side, the Battle of Okinawa
also presents dismal figures. It&;s during
0.24 of this commitment that the famous Yamamoto
battleship –the largest military building
0.24 ship of the world at the time– was
sunk by the US Navy on April 7.
0.24 Believe it or not, this ship weighs
almost 73,000 tons! He had for
0.24 mission to prevent American landings in
Okinawa. He ends up sinking under the
0.24 dive bombers, dragging no less than
3,000 Japaneses sailors to the bottom
0.24 of the sea.
0.24 Finally, it should be noted that elsewhere in the
Pacific, while the fighting raged in Okinawa,
0.24 Australian soldiers invade the island
of Borneo, near Java and Sumatra, in
0.24 during a campaign that lasted quite a long
time, from May 1 to August 15, 1945.
0.24 And while the battles in Borneo, the
city of Rangoon, Burma, is liberated
0.24 on May 3. Fighting also continues
in New Guinea, where again the
0.24 Australian soldiers have their
hands full against the Japanese.
0.24 On the side of China, we know that the
fighting has known almost no respite since
0.24 the 1930s, but at the beginning of
1945 there was a general retreat of
0.24 Japanese forces, a retreat that can be explained
by the defeat suffered by the Japanese Empire
0.24 near from there, in Okinawa.
0.24 Moreover, when the Japanese abandoned their
conquests in China, the island of Okinawa
0.24 is considered secure by the Americans on
June 22. Unsurprisingly, the majority of
0.24 members of the Japanese general staff kill
themselves in what seems to be, for the moment,
0.24 the last great battle to conquer an island in the Pacific.
0.24 Certainly, the Americans are delighted with their
victory, but one question remains: will it be
0.24 possible, sooner or later, to conquer Japan? At
the sight of the savagery of the fighting in Okinawa,
0.24 it&;s a safe bet that the Japanese will
give no quarter to the Americans in
0.24 the case of a possible invasion of their national territory.
0.24 Clearly, other means will have to be
considered to force Japan to surrender.
0.24 I&;ll come back! At this point, I open a parenthesis
0.24 to talk to you, as I do regularly, about
the chapter on air warfare. In Europe,
0.24 we have seen that the Luftwaffe offensive
of January 1 constituted in a way
0.24 the last dice throw of the Germans
to regain control of the sky.
0.24 In fact, however, the Allies enjoyed
in 1945 an air superiority that
0.24 can be described as overwhelming, for
example, the aerial bombardments against
0.24 the major German cities and those of the
Axis are more intense and more regular
0.24 than ever, especially as the resistance
offered by the Luftwaffe diminished.
0.24 On February 3, Berlin was again the victim
of an air attack by the Allies, but
0.24 worse still is the treatment suffered by the
city of Dresden, Saxony, from February 13 to 15.
0.24 The bombing of Dresden seems highly
controversial, insofar as the value
0.24 militarily strategic of the city doesn&;t
seem well established. In two days, Dresden
0.24 suffered four attacks from 1,200
Anglo-American heavy bombers.
0.24 At best, Dresden is a railway hub,
but has no important weapons
0.24 factories. Nearly 4,000 tons of explosive
and incendiary bombs are dropped there
0.24 and about 25,000 civilians died.
0.24 The bombs cause a gigantic fire which
destroys about seven square kms in the
0.24 downtown. Despite all, are the
means deployed by the Allies
0.24 justified? The debate rages then as it does today.
0.24 In the Pacific, the year 1945 in turn
saw an intensification of Allies
0.24 bombardments against Japanese
targets. On March 10, as we have
0.24 seen in Dresden, a heavy American bombardment
of the capital Tokyo caused about
0.24 100,000 civilian casualties.
0.24 And the intensification of the American bombardments
can be explained by two reasons. First of all,
0.24 the recent conquests of certain strategic
islands in 1944 and 1945 ensure
0.24 that aircraft can now take off from
nearby bases to attack Japan.
0.24 Then, the increasing number of attacks by
kamikaze planes create a kind of emergency
0.24 on the American side. Indeed, they realize
that it&;s necessary to put an end to these
0.24 attacks by destroying the production factories of
these planes as well as their take-off bases.
0.24 In June, the island of Kyushi, the southernmost
of Japan&;s four main islands and from where
0.24 come from several attacks by suicide bombers,
bear the brunt of the American bombardments,
0.24 just like Osaka, the other major industrial center.
0.24 But are all these air and ground offensives
carried out on the borders of the empire
0.24 Japanese in 1945 proved sufficient to
force him to capitulate? It seems
0.24 that no. Japan resists again
and again. I&;ll come back!
0.24 Let&;s now turn to the home front and the
diplomatic front, where the year 1945
0.24 knows its share of incidents and horrors,
as one feels that the end of the
0.24 war is approaching. In January,
in Greece, strong tensions between
0.24 the different political factions in the
country, especially between the Communists
0.24 and the partisans of the royal government in
exile, make fear the worst. The civil war is
0.24 looms on the horizon in a country where
they have only just been liberated.
0.24 It was also in January that Hitler made
the decision to settle permanently
0.24 in his bunker in Berlin, he doesn&;t intend
to leave the capital of the Third Reich,
0.24 even if his immediate entourage implore
him as the Soviet troops approach.
0.24 His bunker isn&;t far from the chancellery
and he intends to fight until the end.
0.24 On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean,
in the USA, President Roosevelt lends
0.24 sworn in on January 20 for a fourth
term, which is a record at one time
0.24 where the country&;s constitution didn&;t clearly
prohibit a president from exercising
0.24 more than two terms. Roosevelt has Mr.
Harry Truman as vice-president this time.
0.24 Barely re-elected, the American president
goes to Europe where he intends to meet
0.24 Churchill and Stalin to discuss, in particular,
the end of hostilities in Europe,
0.24 because yes, the forthcoming victory of
the Allies in Europe is now beyond doubt.
0.24 Sooner or later, the question of redrawing the
European map will have to be addressed
0.24 after the surrender of Germany.
In other words, they must seek
0.24 limit the ambitions of the Soviet Union.
0.24 But the news that I think grabs attention
early in 1945 on the home front
0.24 is the discovery by Soviet troops of the
Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp,
0.24 on January 27, in southern Poland.
0.24 The scene is nightmarish. Seriously,
words fail me! It&;s a factory
0.24 of death. A factory specializing in the
slaughter of human beings, some corpses
0.24 are stacked there by the hundreds,
the smell is indescribable.
0.24 For the few survivors still able to
walk, they advance like zombies,
0.24 their faces are inert, empty of expression
save that of the horror to which they
0.24 are unfortunately accustomed.
0.24 The Auschwitz concentration camp has been
in operation since the spring of 1940.
0.24 We&;re now at the beginning of 1945. In five
years, it&;s estimated that about 1 million
0.24 the number of people murdered there out of
the about 1.3 million people deported.
0.24 They are mostly Jews, Poles,
0.24 and Gypsies prisoners and Soviet war
prisoners. The dead like the
0.24 alive seem anonymous to us, so many of
them have lived and perished there,
0.24 but names reappear: the young
Dutch-born writer Anne Frank figures
0.24 among the victims. His diary of the time
of the occupation of his country captivated
0.24 the world. Other figures such
as the writer and doctor
0.24 in chemistry Primo Levi stayed there,
as did the French writer and politician
0.24 Simone Veil, as well as the philosopher Elie
Wiesel who all recount their experiences
0.24 lived in this death camp.
0.24 Auschwitz-Birkenau is a huge complex
of about forty concentration and
0.24 extermination camps divided into three main
camps, namely Auschwitz I, II and III.
0.24 Part of the complex is made up of labor
camps, another part of extermination camps
0.24 with its gas chambers.
0.24 Auschwitz-Birkenau is, if I may say so,
an integral part of the Final Solution.
0.24 The complex grew throughout
the war. Trains full of Jews
0.24 and other prisoners arrive daily from all over Europe.
0.24 Most prisoners are gassed as soon as they
arrive, others died of starvation, exhaustion,
0.24 illnesses, torture, shot or died
during medical experiments.
0.24 The German torturers did try to conceal
their crimes, in particular by deporting
0.24 Auschwitz prisoners westward
as Soviet soldiers approach,
0.24 but it&;s a waste of time. The world
is now learning about the Nazi
0.24 concentration camp system. The consternation
is total! I&;ll come back to it.
0.24 And as the world learns of the
events at Auschwitz, the three
0.24 great Allied leaders Churchill, Roosevelt
and Stalin meet on February 4,
0.24 within the framework of the important
conference of Yalta, in Crimea.
0.24 For a week, the future winners of
Germany discuss the redistricting
0.24 future European borders and respective
post-war zones of influence.
0.24 It also addresses the question of
the reorganization of Germany in
0.24 political, military, economic and social terms.
A bit like in 1919 in Versailles, we seek
0.24 in Yalta not only to increase collective
security in the world, but also to guarantee
0.24 the independence of peoples
liberated from Nazi occupation.
0.24 Naturally, there&;s a strong wind of
skepticism regarding future ambitions
0.24 politico-military of the USSR, as
the armies move towards Berlin.
0.24 The idea would be, in Yalta, to divide
Germany and its capital into different
0.24 areas of influence between the USSR,
Great Britain and the United States.
0.24 It&;s also agreed that France –which is
struggling to regain its place among the
0.24 major military powers– also has
its own zone of occupation in
0.24 Germany. Another important element that emerges from Yalta:
0.24 the imperative demilitarization and “denazification”
of German institutions and society.
0.24 As for the reparations that Germany will
have to pay, its future victors envisage
0.24 whether in the form of forced labor
to repair the damage caused in
0.24 occupied countries.
0.24 The Yalta conference also gave birth to
the reorganization of the Polish borders,
0.24 in particular by monopolizing territories
to the east of the Third Reich.
0.24 President Roosevelt also obtained from Stalin
a commitment that the USSR would participate
0.24 to the future organization of the United
Nations, he also asks the USSR to commit
0.24 to declare war on Japan once Germany is defeated.
0.24 Finally, let&;s retain from the Yalta agreements
a last not insignificant element, which may
0.24 obvious, you&;ll say to me: the Allies
agree to track down the criminals of
0.24 Nazi wars, then ideally judge them in the
territories where their crimes were
0.24 perpetrated. I&;ll come back to it.
0.24 In the weeks following the Yalta
conference, when he had just
0.24 begin his fourth term, the world learns of the
death of President Roosevelt on April 12.
0.24 He died of polio, a disease that affected
him for many years, his vice-president
0.24 Harry Truman is now sworn in as the
33rd President of the United States.
0.24 The next week, on April 20, Chancellor Adolf
Hitler “celebrates” his 56th birthday
0.24 in his bunker where he&;s now installed.
Rumor has it that he isn&;t in good
0.24 health, that he&;s nervous and depressed.
0.24 And the defections in the immediate entourage
of Hitler are more numerous, convinced
0.24 of the inevitability of defeat, important
figures of the Nazi regime such as
0.24 Hermann Göring, Albert Speer and Heinrich
Himmler are all trying to save themselves.
0.24 The regime is collapsing.
0.24 Another sign that events in Europe were
precipitating in late April 1945, the
0.24 Italian dictator Benito Mussolini also
tries by all means to escape fate.
0.24 Heavily disguised, Mussolini was finally
captured by partisans on April 27 in
0.24 northern Italy as he tries to flee to Switzerland.
0.24 The next day, Mussolini and his longtime
mistress, Clara Petacci, were shot
0.24 and their bodies exhibited in Milan, hung upside down.
0.24 Hitler is informed of the events and he feels
that his end is approaching. On April 29, he
0.24 marries his longtime girlfriend Eva Braun.
However, their union will probably be
0.24 of short time. Why? Well, because the next day,
0.24 April 30, Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit
suicide in their Bunker, in Berlin, probably
0.24 using a combination of poison and firearms.
Hitler would have shot himself
0.24 possibly in the head, and his wife
would have swallowed a cyanide capsule.
0.24 In accordance with his latest instructions, Hitler
ordered that his body and that of Braun
0.24 be transported to the surface outside
the bunker to be burned with gasoline
0.24 in the garden of the Chancellery.
0.24 Before killing himself, Hitler wrote
a will naming Joseph Goebbels
0.24 as Reich Chancellor and Admiral
Karl Donitz as Reich President.
0.24 The death of the Nazi leader doesn&;t quite
mark the end of the war in Europe. There
0.24 has still fighting in central Germany,
around Berlin and in Czechoslovakia.
0.24 In fact, the classic distinction that
we now know between, for example, the
0.24 western and eastern fronts is becoming
more and more blurred, insofar as
0.24 Allied troops in the West are closing
in on the incoming Soviets
0.24 from the east.
0.24 If I can still speak of a "Western" front, the
month of April 1945 saw its share of horrors
0.24 and fights. As news of Hitler&;s
death spread, American soldiers
0.24 liberated the Buchenwald concentration camp
located near Weimar in central Germany.
0.24 It&;s estimated that at least 56,000 prisoners
were executed out of the nearly 280,000
0.24 that the Buchenwald camp received.
The American soldiers thus enter
0.24 the camp, they see there all the horrors and
atrocities committed by the Nazi regime.
0.24 The American general and future president
Dwight Eisenhower in turn visits one
0.24 of the sites of this concentration camp and
the British troops liberate, a few days
0.24 later, the Bergen-Belsen camp located in Lower Saxony.
0.24 In Bergen-Belsen, same scenario, no less than
50,000 of the 120,000 prisoners died there,
0.24 including many Soviet prisoners of war, Jews
and prisoners of other nationalities.
0.24 At the time of liberation, the British forces
find that there are still 60,000 prisoners
0.24 in the camp, almost all of whom are sick and
starving. Walking between the barracks,
0.24 there are at least 12,000 corpses scattered
and piled here and there inside
0.24 as in the immediate surroundings of the camp.
0.24 The camp is overcrowded, so much so that this
promiscuity encourages the proliferation of
0.24 diseases such as typhus, tuberculosis,
dysentery, all diseases that increase
0.24 the death rate of prisoners.
0.24 Despite the discovery of the Nazi concentration
camp system, the Allied and Soviet forces
0.24 continue to grow in Germany. On
April 25, American and Soviet troops
0.24 make their junction on the river Elbe at the
height of the municipality of Torgau.
0.24 Germany is officially cut in two.
0.24 Four days later, on the 29th, American
soldiers liberated another concentration camp
0.24 major of the Nazi regime: Dachau. Again, same horror scenario.
0.24 At the same time, we welcome with joy and
satisfaction the news of the liberation of
0.24 Denmark and Netherlands, where German
troops surrender to Anglo-Canadian forces,
0.24 on May 4.
0.24 And while the next day officially began
in Reims, France, negotiations in
0.24 view of the German surrender on the
Western Front, American troops liberate
0.24 another camp, that of Mauthausen in Austria,
where about half of the 300,000 detainees
0.24 died there.
0.24 But the horror in Europe is coming
to an end, it&;s almost over
0.24 of the Nazi regime. During the night of May 7, 1945,
the belligerents signed the official capitulation
0.24 of the German troops on their front.
0.24 German General Alfred Jodl signs the text
on behalf of Reich President Admiral
0.24 Karl Donitz, which effectively ended
the war on the Western Front.
0.24 What will later be called Victory Day,
V-Day, Victory in Europe Day, takes
0.24 effective the next day, May 8. The war
seems well and truly over… well, almost!
0.24 Because it&;s not all over yet.
I deliberately chose to
0.24 first tell you about the end of the war on the
Western front, but that would be to forget
0.24 that in the last weeks of the conflict,
violent fighting continued between the
0.24 Axis forces to Soviet invaders.
0.24 For example, on April 15, the city of Vienna
finally fell into the hands of the Red Army.
0.24 A provisional government was immediately
established there, which officially marked the
0.24 secession of the country from what
remains of the German Third Reich.
0.24 However, what seems to hold the world&;s
attention with regard to the war on
0.24 the eastern front lies in the advance of the
Soviet forces towards Berlin, advance
0.24 which is indeed moving forward from April 16.
0.24 The Soviets reach the suburbs of Berlin.
Two days later, the Germans
0.24 caught in the city realize they&;re
surrounded on at least three sides.
0.24 They&;re now fighting in the capital itself.
Berlin, at the end of April 1945, constitutes
0.24 probably, with Stalingrad in 1942, the scene
of the most violent urban fighting
0.24 of World War II. They fight in the streets,
through the broken walls of the
0.24 buildings, they machine-gun each other underground
between two metro stations and in the manure of
0.24 sewers.
0.24 The civilians, who also fight in the same
way as the soldiers, form barricades
0.24 with everything that comes to hand: cars,
destroyed tanks, furniture, and so on!
0.24 The fights seem to reach a paroxysm of
violence around the famous door of
0.24 Brandenburg and, without too many surprises, around
the Reichstag, the parliament and seat of the
0.24 chancellery.
0.24 Feeling the end approaching, but still anxious
to show that he&;s indeed in charge
0.24 –in what seems to be a mark of a certain
denial of reality–, Hitler
0.24 orders General S. S. Felix Steiner to launch
a counter-offensive north of Berlin
0.24 with units that only exist on paper!
0.24 General Steiner refuses because
the lack of manpower. Hitler
0.24 becomes mad with rage! He claims the head
of General SS. and takes the opportunity
0.24 to shoot on all his staff.
0.24 The Nazi leader also makes a first
declaration that the war will be lost
0.24 and that he hears, paradoxically perhaps
and as I mentioned previously,
0.24 personally lead the defense of Berlin. He
makes an oath in this regard, just as
0.24 he plans to kill himself in his bunker in the
event of the inevitable. Nevertheless, some
0.24 German counter-attacks are attempted on
April 24 in different sectors of Berlin,
0.24 but without success.
0.24 On the 27th, the German capital is now
considered to be completely surrounded.
0.24 It seems impossible for the Germans to get in or out!
0.24 This is normal, you&;ll tell me, especially
if we consider the forces involved.
0.24 It&;s estimated that at least 1.5 million
Soviet soldiers were present at the battle
0.24 Berlin final against about 750,000 German fighters,
0.24 but for the very defense of the capital,
the Germans could only field a meager
0.24 contingent of about 45,000 German fighters
and of different nationalities,
0.24 plus to the 40,000 soldiers of the Volkssturm,
the police forces and the Hitler Youth.
0.24 When the Battle of Berlin officially ended, around May 2
0.24 1945, the Soviets mourn the loss of about
81,000 soldiers killed or missing,
0.24 280,000 wounded, while the Germans have
no less than 90,000 of their own
0.24 fallen in action and 220,000 wounded.
0.24 To these losses, the Germans must also
consider that at least 480,000 of their
0.24 soldiers are taken prisoner by the Soviets and
that at least 20,000 Berliners are dead
0.24 during these clashes.
0.24 While the capital of the Third Reich is
crumbling under the boots of the Red Army,
0.24 elsewhere, on the Eastern front, events are also jostling.
0.24 On May 1, there&;s some confusion
in Germany regarding the vacancy
0.24 of power occasioned by Hitler&;s death.
Indeed, one of the defense commanders
0.24 in the capital, General Hans Krebs
tries to negotiate with the Soviets
0.24 the surrender of the Berlin garrison.
0.24 The catch is that General Krebs doesn&;t have
permission from the new Chancellor Joseph
0.24 Goebbels to negotiate such an unconditional
surrender. Now, a sign that the confusion
0.24 reign, this power vacuum appears to be very short-lived.
0.24 On the same day, May 1, and believe it or
not, Goebbels and his wife murdered their
0.24 six children, probably by feeding them
cyanide before they slept, and they
0.24 then commit suicide. Yes, you heard right:
they murdered their six children!
0.24 The next day, the Soviets capture the Reichstag
and they hoist their flag in its
0.24 peak. This highly symbolic catch marks the
0.24 official end of the Battle of Berlin,
just as another commander of the
0.24 garrison, General Helmuth Weidling, surrenders
unconditionally to the Soviets, because
0.24 he no longer considers himself bound by Goebbels&;
orders given the latter&;s death.
0.24 The days following the fall of Berlin
in May 1945 saw further clashes
0.24 take place on the eastern front, albeit brief.
From May 6 to 11, the Czechoslovakian capital
0.24 of Prague is the scene of what can be
considered as the last major offensive
0.24 of the war in Europe.
0.24 The Soviets attack the capital at the same time
as an insurrection among the population, the
0.24 Germans quickly realize that resistance
is no longer useful. Czechoslovakia
0.24 is about to be fully liberated in turn.
0.24 What remains of the German forces on the
Eastern front, namely theoretical numbers
0.24 of about 1 million men, surrendered
unconditionally to Soviet troops, who
0.24 thus take about 850,000 prisoners, the
rest of the German troops being killed
0.24 on the run to the West or missing.
0.24 At the same time as the end of the war on
the Western Front, German troops in
0.24 the East officially capitulated on May 8,
1945, during a ceremony demanded by the
0.24 Soviets. It&;s the German general Wilhelm
Keitel who signs for his country, acting
0.24 thus under the orders of the President
of the Reich, Admiral Donitz.
0.24 This is the end of the war on the Eastern front
and, suddenly, of the war in Europe!
0.24 Of course, with the end of the war in Europe,
they have reason to rejoice, but the mainland
0.24 was on fire and sword for more than five years!
0.24 However, many problems of all
kinds persist. I bring you back
0.24 on the domestic and diplomatic fronts, because
certain elements are to be taken into
0.24 consideration at the end of the European war and
without forgetting that they&;re still fighting in
0.24 the Pacific. On June 5, the Allies victorious over Germany
0.24 finally agree to divide the country and
its capital Berlin into four zones
0.24 of occupation, in accordance with
what had been negotiated in Yalta.
0.24 A few weeks later, on June 26, was signed
in San Francisco, United States,
0.24 the Charter of the United Nations. This
is the founding text of the United Nations,
0.24 which defines the purposes and principles
of the new international organization.
0.24 The UN aspires to maintain international
peace and security, to uphold
0.24 the right, to raise the question of social,
economic and political problems, while
0.24 as to uphold human rights, without
distinction as to race, language,
0.24 sex, or religion.
0.24 But when the UN is set up, the war isn&;t over
0.24 in the Pacific and the organization of
the world still remains to be redefined.
0.24 Meanwhile, in America, on July 16,
an atomic test codenamed Trinity
0.24 is driven to the USA, specifically
to New Mexico. We assist in the most
0.24 great secrecy to a first detonation
of a nuclear charge as part of the
0.24 Manhattan Project. The Americans are
about to have their first atomic
0.24 weapon! On July 26, this time in Great Britain,
0.24 the country is experiencing a changing of the
guard. Indeed, Clement Atlee&;s Labor Party
0.24 came to power and the new British
leader immediately flew to Potsdam,
0.24 in Germany.
0.24 He&;ll join his defeated opponent Winston
Churchill there when the important
0.24 inter-allied conference. The aim
of the Potsdam conference is
0.24 first to fix the fate of the defeated
enemy nations, in what appears to be a
0.24 logical follow-up to the previous inter-allied
conferences in Tehran in 1943 and to that,
0.24 more recent, from Yalta.
0.24 The United States, Great Britain and
the Soviet Union agree on the idea of
0.24 the unconditional surrender of Japan and
there&;s also discussion on how to administer
0.24 post-war Germany. In other words,
they discuss the reorganization
0.24 of the post-war world, just as the more
technical question of the Germany
0.24 dismemberment, which roughly loses
about 25% of its pre-war territory.
0.24 The defeated Germany is also the subject
of an imposing disarmament process
0.24 and denazification of its institutions
and society, and as I mentioned
0.24 previously, prosecutions were initiated
against Nazi war criminals.
0.24 What emerges from Potsdam is the portrait of
a Germany more divided than ever, the country
0.24 is literally cut in two: an
Eastern bloc and a West bloc.
0.24
0.24 It&;s a division of the world and Stalin suddenly
demands that millions of Germans
0.24 from the East and from the territories of
Eastern Europe be expelled to the West.
0.24 Again, for the Germans, the aftermath
of the war will be difficult.
0.24 Also during the Potsdam conference on
July 24, the new American president
0.24 Harry Truman leaks information
to the effect that the USA has
0.24 an atomic bomb, probably in order
to keep the Soviets at bay
0.24 with regard to their politico-military ambitions.
0.24 It&;s in a way on this last element
that the Potsdam conference ends.
0.24 In their final statement, the Allies
call on Japan to surrender without
0.24 condition, failing which the Japanese
empire will face certain destruction!
0.24 And when the conference ended, the USSR,
on August 8, 1945, declared war
0.24 in Japan.
0.24 With that in mind, let&;s now return
to the Pacific theater of operations,
0.24 the only theater where the war
continued in that summer of 1945.
0.24 On July 5, the American Commander-in-Chief,
General Douglas MacArthur, publicly announced
0.24 the liberation of the Philippines.
0.24 The next month, and in accordance with
their commitment made in Potsdam, the
0.24 Soviet forces begin military operations
and invade Manchuria, part of Mongolia,
0.24 part of North Korea and the Kuril Islands
located between the USSR and Japan.
0.24 But these recent events are of
relatively secondary importance,
0.24 insofar as what holds the attention is the
imminent deployment of the atomic weapon
0.24 against Japan.
0.24 Yes, the decision is made: at least one
atomic bomb will be dropped against the
0.24 Japanese empire. The war must end! In
the greatest secrecy, all the components
0.24 necessary for the assembly of this first
atomic bomb are ready. The mission of
0.24 dropping of this bomb is entrusted to
a squadron of American heavy bombers
0.24 long-range B-29 type. On August
6, 1945, and despite the ultimatum
0.24 that the Allies had sent to Japan at
Potsdam, the first atomic bomb of
0.24 history, a bomb enriched with uranium,
is dropped on the city of Hiroshima.
0.24 Nicknamed Little Boy, this relatively
large bomb is thrown from the bomber
0.24 B-29 named Enola Gay. It strikes the heart
of Hiroshima, which is a major seaport,
0.24 as well as an important industrial center
which houses an Japanese army
0.24 headquarters.
0.24 And the result is appalling, even apocalyptic. The
immense mushroom of fire and radioactivity
0.24 kills no less than 70,000 civilians and some 20,000
soldiers in an instant, this figure doesn&;t
0.24 count the tens of thousands of other
people who will die in the next few
0.24 weeks and the next few months,
0.24 because the bomb does not only kill and burn
its victims, all buildings and infrastructure
0.24 located in the immediate radius of its point
of fall are systematically destroyed.
0.24 The world discovers all the horror of this
weapon of mass destruction. And this isn&;t
0.24 finished. Three days later, on August
9, a second bomb fell on
0.24 Nagasaki, also an important Japanese seaport
and naval base. This bomb, nicknamed
0.24 Fat Man, which is enriched with plutonium,
causes more than 80,000 civilian victims.
0.24 The many civilians not killed
instantly die in the next weeks.
0.24 The pain caused by the severe burns and
the radiation is humanly unbearable,
0.24 not to mention the diseases that may
develop and whose effects aren&;t
0.24 still scientifically well documented in 1945.
0.24 On August 10, the day after the fall of the
second atomic bomb against Nagasaki, the
0.24 Japanese government sends a message to the
Allies, they accept the terms of the declaration
0.24 of Potsdam with respect to capitulation, but
on the condition that the terms imposed
0.24 in no way affect the prerogatives
of the emperor as sovereign.
0.24 The Allies accept this condition, but
specifying that the future status
0.24 of the emperor still remains to be determined,
first it&;s necessary to impose on the Japanese
0.24 a peace without any other conditions.
0.24 However, a problem arises: not all Japanese leaders
0.24 seem neither to want nor to accept the capitulation.
On August 14 and 15, senior soldiers
0.24 ranks and civilian officials of the Ministry
of War and the Imperial Guard attempt
0.24 a coup, but they fail to rally enough support.
0.24 On August 15, Emperor Hiro-Hito will issue
a statement on the radio announcing
0.24 Japan&;s unconditional surrender. The watchword
comes directly from the Emperor,
0.24 it must be followed, obeyed.
0.24 The date of August 15, 1945 in the Pacific
is the equivalent of May 8 in Europe. It&;s
0.24 the Allied Victory Day in this
theater of operations. We know
0.24 now that the war is virtually over, but
it&;s necessary to ensure the transition
0.24 towards peace. In the wake of his message on the radio
0.24 to the nation, Emperor Hiro-Hito orders his
soldiers to stop fighting completely on
0.24 August 16.
0.24 The next day, US President Harry Truman
issued General Order No. 1, which
0.24 calls for Japan&;s surrender. Presented
by General MacArthur to the Japanese
0.24 representatives so it could in turn be handed
over to their soldiers, the order was
0.24 given to all units to surrender to allied
commanders facing them by September 2.
0.24 What&;s more, Truman&;s order details
areas of Japan&;s future occupation
0.24 by the allied troops, while specifying
that Korea will be divided
0.24 between two zones, i.e., a northern zone and
a southern zone bounded by the 38th
0.24 parallel.
0.24 Curiously, perhaps, the political and
military situation in the Pacific theater
0.24 seems much more chaotic than that which
marked the end of the war in Europe.
0.24 On August 19, for example, hostilities
officially broke out –and finally, some
0.24 will say– between Chinese nationalists
and communists. China is entering a
0.24 civil war whose outcome is uncertain
as the Japanese evacuate the mainland
0.24 and all of the occupied territories of Southeast Asia.
0.24 In late August, US General MacArthur
officially takes control of the
0.24 Japanese government in Tokyo. Japan is
well and truly over and events continue
0.24 to hustle!
0.24 The Philippines declares its independence
from Japan and Vietnam does the same with
0.24 France. In this case, Ho Chi Minh, the
leader of the Vietnamese communist forces,
0.24 publishes on September 2 a declaration of independence
of Vietnam, but which isn&;t recognized
0.24 by the United States and even less by France.
0.24 For now, the world holds that
World War II is about to end.
0.24 Indeed, on September 2, 1945, the
acts of Japan&;s capitulation were
0.24 signed on board the American battleship USS
Missouri, in Tokyo Bay, in the presence of
0.24 delegates from allied nations and political
and military representatives of
0.24 Japan. This twenty-minute ceremony
0.24 is broadcast live all over the
world. Japanese Foreign Minister
0.24 and the Chief of the Army General Staff sign
the documents on behalf of their government
0.24 and the Allied representatives, starting
with General MacArthur, do the same.
0.24 World War II is over! It now
remains to make peace, to build
0.24 the peace. But straight away, what seems
to have been the deadliest war in history
0.24 fails to convince human beings to stop killing each other.
0.24 Elsewhere in the world, the end of
the World War II obviously marked a
0.24 transitions period of all kinds. These
transitions, whether political, military,
0.24 economic or social will not be easy.
0.24 In the former occupied territories, we&;re
witnessing many settling of accounts
0.24 between those who resisted foreign occupation
forces and those who openly collaborated
0.24 with these. This is particularly
the case in France, where the former
0.24 collaborationist Prime Minister Pierre Laval
is executed by the Provisional Government
0.24 of the French Republic on October 15,
1945. But that&;s not all. They search
0.24 also to settle accounts with former
war criminals, whether German
0.24 or Japanese.
0.24 To take only the case of the Nazis, the defining
event of the end of the war is unquestionably
0.24 the opening, on November 20, of the
Nuremberg trials which officially end
0.24 the following year, on October 1, 1946.
In Nuremberg are judged, during various
0.24 sessions in the form of a military tribunal,
24 of the main leading figures associated
0.24 to the Nazi regime. These trials and court
sessions are intended to shed light on the
0.24 crimes attributed to the defendants.
0.24 Prosecutors who represent the main
Allied powers that fought Germany
0.24 seek to establish the level of involvement of
the accused, to determine to what extent
0.24 whether or not they participated in the
Holocaust and other mass war crimes.
0.24 In addition to being charged with war crimes,
the 24 Nazis involved are also charged
0.24 conspiracy, crimes against peace
and crimes against humanity.
0.24 The Nuremberg trials are the first
international court in history.
0.24 Their progress and their verdicts
contribute to the creation of
0.24 international law on war crimes,
as well as on crimes against
0.24 humanity.
0.24 Several of the defendants are found guilty and
the sentences are increasingly severe,
0.24 ranging from the death penalty to life imprisonment.
0.24 The Nuremberg trials will lead to the
creation of the International Criminal Court
0.24 and will be a first opportunity
to discuss the now well-known and
0.24 admitted term to "genocide".
0.24 We&;re now at the conclusion. Yes, the
time for assessments has arrived. As
0.24 you could see it during these episodes
devoted to each years of the conflict,
0.24 the World War II left behind a heavy
toll with various consequences,
0.24 consequences that are still being felt today.
0.24 By its duration, the number of belligerent states,
the involvement of civilians in both industries
0.24 than directly on the front line, the use
of new weapons and the industrialization
0.24 of death by policies of mass extermination,
the war of 1939-1945 not only
0.24 marked an entire generation, but also those that follow.
0.24 And when the guns fall silent, many questions
remain unanswered. For instance,
0.24 what could the world look like
after 1945? How can we rebuild
0.24 peace after such a long, devastating and
0.24 traumatic? Is peace possible? Is it possible ?
0.24 The casualties alone are beyond
comprehension. Numbers will never be
0.24 perfectly established, but it&;s believed that
from 1939 to 1945, between 50 and 60 million people
0.24 died, whether on the front line,
under aerial bombardment and
0.24 in the concentration camps.
0.24 Plus to the deaths, we must add to this heavy
toll the displacement of populations,
0.24 whether voluntary or not, in the context
of exoduses, mass deportations
0.24 or border changes. For Europe alone,
these population movements are
0.24 number about 30 million people.
0.24 And it&;s not over. The World
War II leaves behind territories
0.24 ravaged, devastated and collapsed economies.
The destruction is considerable in
0.24 all theaters of operations. We see that
Japan has some of its cities completely
0.24 destroyed under the blows of the new atomic weapon.
0.24 But it&;s in Europe where the material
destruction is the greatest, more
0.24 two million tons of bombs were
dropped on European cities,
0.24 almost all German cities must be
rebuilt, as well as elsewhere
0.24 on the continent, whether in Russia, Poland or France.
0.24 It&;s likely that the USSR alone suffered
the most material destruction and human
0.24 resources directly linked to military
operations. The Soviet Union records
0.24 alone at least a third of the casualties
of World War II and saw the bulk
0.24 combat operations in Europe take place on its territory.
0.24 Civilian populations have suffered from the
rationing of raw materials, particularly
0.24 relating to food and medical supplies.
Again, the end of the war
0.24 in the former occupied or defeated territories
doesn&;t in any way mean the end of rationing.
0.24 The hardships continue. As we saw in 1914-1918 -right here-
0.24 the 1939-1945 war in turn brought
about a sort of “moral shock”, i.e.,
0.24 psychological traumas which constitute only
the tip of the dramas actually experienced
0.24 by contemporaries.
0.24 For example, the war marks the consciences
because, as I said, of the number without
0.24 precedent of civilian casualties, and also
because of the methods used to kill
0.24 the most people possible. The world
discovered in 1945 the full extent
0.24 of the horror of the Nazi concentration camp
system. And as if that wasn&;t enough,
0.24 the world finds, in the same year, that humanity
can very well self-destruct with the
0.24 new atomic weapon,
0.24 which suggests that people will have to
pay for committing all these horrors,
0.24 all these crimes. As we have just seen, the
Allies undertake the trial of the vanquished,
0.24 half of the defendants of Nuremberg are
thus condemned to death for their role in
0.24 the Jewish genocide. Note also that
in Japan, 25 people are also judged
0.24 for war crimes and crimes against
humanity. Heads are rolling again.
0.24 We have also seen that the organization
of peace and the redrawing of world
0.24 borders will not be a simple or
obvious task. The Yalta and
0.24 Potsdam impose harsh conditions on defeated
enemies, but also promise tools
0.24 to prevent another outbreak of World War III.
0.24 Germany is now militarily occupied
and Europe split in two, Japan
0.24 is also occupied in the context of an
unconditional surrender, these countries
0.24 should submit and have their borders redrawn,
especially in the case of Germany.
0.24 It&;s therefore important to rethink post-war
international relations. The end
0.24 of the World War II saw the
birth of the UN, which
0.24 should -it&;s hoped- replace the defunct
League of Nations of 1920, but above all
0.24 have coercive means to protect, even impose peace.
0.24 A new world order is now in motion.
Old Europe is on the decline,
0.24 an accelerating decline as almost the entire continent is
0.24 destroyed. Britain&;s financial power
0.24 comes out weakened, just like France which
after its defeat of 1940 doesn&;t manage
0.24 to regain the rank of great power that
it once occupied after the
0.24 World War I.
0.24 What&;s more, this weakness of the European
colonial powers encourages the rise of
0.24 independence movements in the colonies,
as we saw with Vietnam, for example.
0.24 And while the former colonies assert more
and more to detach themselves from the
0.24 motherland, the world is witnessing the
emergence of two great powers: the USA
0.24 and the Soviet Union.
0.24 In the case of the USA, they emerge from the
conflict strengthened, both militarily and
0.24 economically. The country&;s
industrial production goes from
0.24 simple to double between 1939 and
1945 and they&;re the main donors
0.24 of the allied coalition. Militarily, their
armies are numerous and they have, for
0.24 the moment, the monopoly of the atomic bomb.
0.24 As far as the Soviet Union is concerned,
the latter also has great prestige,
0.24 especially from a military point of view. The
epic struggle of his armies in Stalingrad in
0.24 1942 represents for the world the first
real defeat inflicted on the Hitler regime.
0.24 The territory of the Soviet Union in 1945
takes an incredible expansion and its
0.24 influence, if not his authority, remains incontestable
in the territories liberated by his armies.
0.24 But the Allies in 1945 are no longer united.
From the Potsdam conference, we have seen,
0.24 mistrust begins to set in as troops converge on the
0.24 Nazi capital. Brits and Americans are worried about
0.24 conquests of the Red Army in Eastern
Europe, in particular because Churchill
0.24 and Truman suspect Stalin of being
unwilling to hold free elections
0.24 in the liberated territories.
0.24 Liberated Europe becomes a field of disputes
between the great victorious powers.
0.24 The grand coalition that fought Nazism
for so long is no longer what it was,
0.24 it&;s now showing its limits, once the
enemy is defeated, everyone resumes
0.24 control of its strategic agenda.
0.24 A kind of Iron Curtain will end up being installed
between the former allies of the East and
0.24 the West, a curtain that isn&;t only political,
but physically very real, the
0.24 world is divided into two camps.
The Cold War sets in.
0.24 If you want to know more, you go see,
we made a complete video on the
0.24 Berlin Wall.
0.24 In the meantime, that&;s it for today.
It&;s over for this long series on
0.24 the history of World War II. I hope you liked it!
0.24 In any case, I wouldn&;t tell you that
we spent hours there just filming,
0.24 writing, editing. I must thank
Carl Pépin with whom I worked on
0.24 this huge series, we wanted to offer it
to everyone to also understand the
0.24 trauma that was the World War II.
0.24 Its said that history is useful,
because it allows us not to
0.24 make the same mistakes again and when we
know our history, we&;re able to consider
0.24 our present and our future a little better,
at least, I hope. And on my side, I&;d like
0.24 to dedicate this series to my great-grandfather
who fought in both wars, including the
0.24 World War II -you have a photo of him
here- His name was Maurice Desfontaines.
0.24 In short, I dedicate this series to him.
I&;m Laurent Turcot from L’Histoire
0.24 will tell us -I&;m exhausted, I don&;t
know if you are too- If you have
0.24 liked what you saw, you know what
to do: liking, sharing,
0.24 bring the series to life.
It&;s over for today and if
0.24 you want another series, comment
below, tell us which one you want?
0.24 Come on, I&;ll see you next time. Bye!
0.24 Subtitles: salvadorarmandoul@gmail.com
.